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BRIEP"    COMPEND 


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AMERICAN 


AGRICULTURE 


BY   R.   L.  lALLEN. 


SECOND    EDITIONi 


NEW-YORfe: 

t'tJBLlSHED    FOR    THE    AUTHok 
BY     C.     M.     SAXTON, 

205  Broadway. 
1847. 


S4<?9 

UI-7 


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•  ••,••  • 


vi::: 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1846,  by 

R.  L.  ALLEN, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Northern  Distr  ct  of  New  York. 


PREFACE 


The  fV)llowin«>-  brief  compend  of  American  Agriculture  is 
intended  as  one  of  tlie  first  in  the  series  of  lessons  lor  the 
American  Farmer.  The  size  precludes  its  embracing  any 
thing  beyond  the  shortest  summary  of  the  principles  and 
practice  by  which  he  should  be  guided,  in  the  honorable 
career  he  has  selected.  As  a  primary  work,  it  is  not  desirable 
it  should  comprise  so  much  as  to  alarm  the  tyro  in  agriculture 
with  the  magnitude  of  his  subject.  A  concise  and  popular 
exposition  of  the  principal  topics  to  which  his  attention  will 
necessarily  be  directed,  will,  it  is  believed,  in  connexion  with 
his  own  observation  and  practice,  give  him  a  taste  for  further 
research,  which  will  lead  him  to  the  fullest  attainment  in 
agricultural  knowledge,  which  could  be  expected  from  his 
capacity  and  opportunities. 

Much  of  what  is  detailed  in  the  present  volume,  has  been 
tested  by  the  writer's  own  experience  and  observation.  For 
the  remainder,  he  is  indebted  to  various  oral  and  written 
information,  derived  fiom  the  best  agriculturists,  and  especially 
fi-om  the  valuable  foreign  and  domestic  agricultural  periodicals 
of  the  j)resent  day. 

Whenever  Oi'lginal  authority  could  lie  known  or  recollected, 
it  has  been  credited  ;  but  many  even  of  the  most  recent 
discoveries,  have  already  passed  through  such  numerous 
hands,  and  received  so  many  shades  of  alteration  or  improve- 
ment, that  their  authors  would  hardly  recognise  their  own 
offspring.  It  would  not  be  strange  therefore,  if  they  had 
become  incorporated   in  the  mass  of  agricultural  principles. 


66&576 


4  PREFACE. 

without  any  indication  of  their  origin.  The  same  or  similar 
discoveries  and  improvements,  are  also,  not  unfrequently 
made,  without  any  interchange,  by  different  minds,  at  remote 
distances.  If  any  omissions  of  proper  acknowledgment  have 
occurred,  the  writer  will  be  happy  to  correct  them  here- 
after. 

To  the  experienced  and  scientific,  this  work  may  appear 
too  common-place  —  to  the  uninstructed,  too  enlarged  or 
abstruse.  It  was  not  intended  to  reconcile  impossibilities. 
The  first  must  look  to  elaborate  or  complete  treatises  for  the 
fullest  information  on  the  various  subjects  comprehended  in 
this  general  summary.  To  the  last,  it  must  be  answered, 
that  what  is  here  communicated,  is  important  to  be  known  ; 
that  modern  agriculture,  like  all  other  progressive  modern 
sciences  and  arts,  has  necessarily  introduced  new  terms,  for 
the  explanation  of  new  principles  and  new  practices ;  and 
the  former  must  be  learned  before  the  latter  can  be  compre- 
hended. 

To  THE  Your^G  Farmers  of  the  United  States,  this 
WORK  IS  respectfully  DEDICATED,  with  the  hope,  that  it 
will  add  its  mite  in  sustaining  and  carrying  forward  the  great 
agricultural  improvements  of  the  present  day.  To  agricul- 
ture, "  the  most  healthful,  the  most  useful,  tlie  most  noble 
employment  of  man,"  rather  than  to  any  other,  or  perhaps, 
to  all  others  combined,  must  we  look  for  the  permanent 
strength,  the  glory  and  happiness  of  our  great  Republic. 


IITRODUCTIO^ 


Agriculture  in  its  most  extensive  sens^e,  may  be  defined' 
the  cultivaiion  of  the  earth  with  a  reference  to  the  product  ion 
of  vegetables,  and  the  conversion  of  portions  of  them  into 
animals  and  a  variety  of  forms,  which  are  the  best  adapted 
to  the  wants  of  mankind.  It  is  appropriately  distinguished 
by  numerous  subdivisions. 

Tillage  Hushandry  consists  in  the  raising  of  grain,  roots 
and  other  products,  which  require  the  extensive  use  of  the 
plow  and  harrow  to  prepare  the  ground  for  annual  sowing 
and  planting. 

Grazing  is  limited  to  the  pasturing  and  winter  feeding  of 
i;irm  stock,  and  it  requires  that  the  land  appropriated  to  this 
purpose,  should  be  kept  in  pasturage  for  svunmer  food,  and  in 
meadows  to  yield  the  hay  necessary  for  winter's  use.  In  its 
strictly  technical  meaning,  grazing  implies  the  rearmg  of 
farm  stock  till  they  have  attained  sufficient  maturity  for  a 
piofitable  market,  as  far  as  this  maturity  can  be  secured  on 
grass  and  hay.  It  however,  properly  embraces  in  its  minor 
divisions,  the  keeping  of  cows  for  the  purposes  of  a  dairy, 
and  the  support  of  flocks  for  the  production  of  wool. 

Feeding  in  its  agricultural  signification,  consists  in  stall 
fattening  animals,  and  it  is  properly  connected  with  tillage 
husbandry,  by  which  grain  and  roots  are  produced,  and  by 
their  free  use,  animals  can  be  brought  to  a  higher  condition 
or  ripeness,  and  they  will  thus  command  a  much  better  price 
in  market,  than  if  fed  exclusively  on  grass  or  hay. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Breeding,  technically  defined,  is  restricted  to  the  production 
of  choice  animals  for  use  as  future  propagators,  by  the  judi- 
cious selection  and  Grossing  of  the  best  specimens  of  the 
.^laVieus  disti/id  3j4'D^d>{  of  domestic  stock. 

HoriiciiUure^emhr^CQX  iho  entire  departments  of  gardening 

::ig<Ji'laQrtv'?'iiT.^i****^'*'.*^''^'^'^'^^^*^"  ^*  trees,  which  is  again 
variously  subdivided 

By  Planting,  (or  the  occupation  of  planters,)  is  understood 
the  cultivation  of  extensive  farms  or  plantations,  for  the 
exclusive  production  of  one  or  more  commeicial  staples  ;  as 
cotton,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  indigo,  d:c.,  and  their  preparation 
for  a  distant  market.  The  term  is  peculiarly  sectional,  and 
its  use,  so  far  as  adopted  in  this  country,  is  limited  to  the 
Southern  part  of  it. 

All  of  these,  and  various  other  occupations  connected  with 
the  cultivation  of  the  earth  are  comprehended  under  the 
general  head  of  Agriculture. 

Besides  the  varied  practical  knowledge  which  is  indispen- 
sable to  the  proper  management  of  every  department  of 
agriculture,  its  general  principles  and  theoretical  relations 
require  a  familiarity  with  tlie  elements  of  History,  Geology, 
Chemistry,  Botany,  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Mechanics  ; 
and  in  their  ultimate  connexion,  they  involve  no  inconsidera- 
ble share  of  the  entire  circle  of  human  knowledge  and 
science. 

In  view  of  its  intricacy,  its  magnitude,  and  its  importance 
to  the  human  race,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the 
|)eculiar  wisdom  of  Deity  in  assigning  toman  this  occupation* 
when  a  far-seeing  and  vigorous  intellect  fitted  him  to  scan 
with  unerring  certainty  and  precision,  the  visible  works  of 
Mis  Creator,  and  trace  their  causes  and  effects  through  all 
their  varied  relations.  It  was  while  in  the  sinless  perfection 
of  his  original  nature,  when  *'  the  Lord  God  put  him  into 
the  garden  of  Eden,  to  dress  it  and  to  keep  it,"  and  agriculture 
was  his  sole  occupation,  that  his  godlike  intelligence  enabled 
him,  instinctively  to  give  appropriate   names,  indicative  of 


TNTRODFCTIOX.  7 

their  true  nature  or  cliaracter,  "  to  all  cattle,  and  to  the  fowl 
of  the  air,  and  to  every  beast  of  the  field;"  and  so  just  and 
accurate  was  his  perception,  that  "  whatsoever  he  called 
every  living  creature,  that  was  the  name  thereof." 

In  our  present  imperfect  condition,  a  beneficent  Providence 
has  not  reserved  a  moderate  success  in  Agriculture,  exclu- 
sively to  the  exercise  of  a  high  degree  of  intelligence.  His 
laws  have  been  so  kindly  framed,  that  (he  hand  even  of 
uninstructed  toil,  may  receive  some  requital  in  remunerating 
harvests ;  while  their  utmost  fulness  can  be  anticipated, 
only  where  corporeal  eftbrts  are  directed  by  the  highest 
intelligence. 

The  indisp  disable  necessity  of  an  advanced  agriculture  to 
the  comforts  anl  wealth,  and  indeed,  to  the  very  existence  of 
a  great  nation,  renders  it  an  object  ])eculiar]y  worthy  the 
attention  and  regard  of  the  legislative  power.  In  looking  to 
the  history  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  we  find,  that 
wherever  a  peop.'e  have  risen  to  enduring  eminence,  they 
have  seduously  enco  uaged  and  protected  this  right  arm  of 
their  strength.  Examples  need  not  be  given  for  they  abound 
in  every  page  of  their  civil  polity. 

Our  own  country  has  not  been  wanting  in  a  moderate 
regard  for  Agriculture.  By  wise  legislation  in  our  National 
Congress,  every  item  of  extensive  agricultural  production 
within  the  United  States,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
inferior  wools,  is  b<»lieved  to  be  fully  protected  from  foreign 
competition,  by  an  unyielding  and  perfectly  adequate  impost 
on  all  such  articles,  as  would  otherwise  enter  into  a  success- 
fid  rivalry  with  them  from  abroad.  Many  of  our  subordinate, 
or  State  Legislatures  have  also,  by  liberal  provisions,  given 
such  encouragement  to  various  objects,  as  they  deemed 
necessary  to  develope  the  agricultural  resources  within  their 
jurisdiction.  Such  have  been  the  appropriations  for  numer- 
ous Geological  and  other  state  surveys;  the  bounties  on 
different  articles,  as  silk,  hemp,  and  some  others :  and  occa- 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

sionally  a  small  gratuity  to  encourage  the  formation  and 
support  of  State  and  County  Agricultural  Societies. 

But  while  we  would  not  be  unmindful  of  what  has  hereto- 
fore been  effected,  our  duty  compels  us  to  assert,  that  much 
yet  remains  to  be  done.  A  single  suggestion  for  the  action 
of  the  general  government  and  states,  is  all  that  our  limits 
will  permit  us  to  make. 

The  organization  of  a  National  Board  of  Agi'iculture, 
composed  of  able  and  intelligent  men,  expressly  selected  for 
this  purpose,  whose  sole  duty  it  should  be  to  collect  all  infor- 
mation and  statistics  on  the  subject,  and  arrange  and  spread 
them  before  the  people ;  to  introduce  new  and  valuable 
foreign  plants,  adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate ;  suggest 
improved  methods  of  cultivation ;  point  out  new  avenues  for 
the  profitable  disposal  of  our  surplus  products;  and  recom- 
mend such  laws  or  their  modification,  as  might  best  subsen'e 
this  interest ;  in  short,  who  should  stand  as  sentinels  and 
defenders  on  the  watch-tower  of  this  great  citadel  —  this  is 
the  lofty  duty,  and  should  be  esteemed  the  peculiar  privilege 
of  American  Legislation  to  accomplish.  This  was  a  favorite, 
yet  never  a  fully  digested  plan  of  Washington,  the  promptings 
of  whose  mind,  were  never  followed  but  for  his  country's 
good. 

From  the  Legislatures  of  the  individual  States  a  less 
commanding,  but  not  less  beneficial  duty  is  required.  Re- 
strictions wisely  imposed  upon  the  general  government,  limit 
its  action  to  such  measures  only  as  are  essential  to  the 
general  welfare,  and  such  as  cannot  properly  be  accomplished 
by  any  more  circumscribed  authority.  More  liberal  .ind 
enlarged  grants  from  the  people,  (the  only  legitimate  source 
of  power  with  the  farmers  and  their  fellow  citizens  of  the 
tTnited  States,)  give  to  the  State  Legislatures,  the  power  of 
doing  all  which  their  constituents  choose  to  have  effected  for 
their  own  benefit. 

Education,  in  all  its  branches,  is  under  their  exclusive 
control ;  and  to  endow  and  foster  every  institution  which  ha^ 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

a  tendency  to  raise  and  improve  the  intellectual,  the  moral 
and  the  social  condition  of  the  people,  has  ever  been  their 
cherished  policy.  Yet  up  to  this  time,  no  institution  expressly 
designed  for  the  professional  education  of  farmers,  has  ever 
been  established  in  this  country.  That  far-seeing  wisdom, 
which  chamcte rises  the  consummate  statesman,  which  re- 
gards the  future  equally  with  the  present  and  past,  has  halted 
upon  the  threshhold  of  the  great  temple  of  agricultural 
science,  whose  ample  and  enduring  foundations  have  been 
commenced  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  men  of  genius 
throughout  both  hemispheres.  To  aid  with  every  means  in 
their  power  in  laying  these  foundations  broad  and  deep,  to 
elevate  its  superstructure,  to  rear  its  mighty  columns,  and 
adorn  its  graceful  capitals,  would  seem,  most  properly  to 
come  entirely  within  the  province  of  the  representatives  of 
intelligent  freemen,  the  great  business  of  whose  lives  is  the 
practice  of  agriculture. 

In  addition  to  continuing,  and  making  more  general  and 
comprehensive  the  encouragement  for  other  objects  iieretofore 
considered  ;  it  is  the  duty  of  each  of  the  larger  States  of  the 
Union,  liberally  to  endow  and  organise  an  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, and  insure  its  successful  operation  within  its  jurisdiction. 
Connected  with  them,  should  be  example  and  experimental 
forms,  where  the  suggestions  of  science  should  be  amply 
tested  and  carried  out  before  submitting  them  to  the  public. 
The  most  competent  men  at  home  and  abroad  should  be 
invited  to  fill  a  professional  chair;  and  if  money  would  tempt 
a  Liebig,  a  Boussingault,  a  Johnston,  or  a  Playfajr,  to  leave 
the  investigations  of  European  soils  and  products,  and  devote 
all  their  mind  and  energies  to  the  development  of  American 
Husbandry,  it  should  be  freely  given. 

These  institutions  should  be  schools  for  the  teachers  equally 
with  the  taught ;  and  their  liberally  appointed  laboratories 
and  collections,  should  contain  every  available  means  for  the 
discovery  of  what  is  yet  hidden,  as  well  as  for  the  further 
development   of  what  is  already  partially  known.      Minor 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

institutions  should  of  course  be  established  at  different  and 
remote  points,  to  scatter  the  elements  of  agricultural  knowl- 
edge  broad-cast  over  the  land,  and  bring  them  within  the 
reach  of  the  poorest  citizens  and  the  humblest  capacities. 

By  snch  a  liberal  and  enlightened  course,  we  should  not 
only  incalculably  augment  the  productive  agricultural  ener- 
gies of  our  o\yn  country,  but  we  should  also  in  part,  repay 
to  the  world  at  large,  the  obligations  under  which  we  now 
rest,  for  having  appropriated  numerous  and  important  disco- 
veries and  improvements  from  abroad.  If  we  have  the  ability, 
wliich  none  can  doubt,  we  should  make  it  a  point  of  honor  to. 
return  in  kind,  the  liberal  advances  we  have  thus  received. 

It  is  to  the  rising  generation  iJiese  suggestions  air,  made ; 
the  risen  are  not  yet  prepared  for  their  acceptance.  The 
latter  have  been  educated,  and  become  habituated  to  different 
and  more  partial  influences.  By  their  industry,  intelligence, 
and  energy,  displayed  in  numberless  ways,  and  especially  by 
their  protection  of  American  labor,  they  have  accomplislied 
much  for  their  own  and  their  country's  welfare  —  they  are 
resolved  to  leave  this  glory  for  their  successors. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.  June,  1846. 


AMERICAI  AGRICULTURE 


CHAPTER-  f. 


SOILS.* 


Soils  are  those  portions  of  the  earth's  surface,  which 
contain  a  nnixture  of  mineral  and  vegetable  or  animal  sub- 
stances, in  such  proportions  as  adapt  them  to  the  support  of 
vegetation.  Rocks  are  the  original  basis  of  all  soils,  which 
by  the  convulsions  of  nature,  or  the  less  violent  but  long 
continued  and  equally  efficient  action  of  air,  moisture  and 
frost,  have  been  broken  into  fragments  more  or  less  minute. 
There  are  various  gradations  of  these  changes. 

The  texture  of  Soils. —  Some  rocks  exist  in  largo 
boulders  or  rounded  stones,  that  thickly  overspread  the  surface 
and  mingle  themselves  with  the  earth  beneath  it,  giving  to 
it  the  name  of  a  rocky  soil.  The  smaller  sizes  but  equal 
prevalence  of  the  same  materials,  give  to  the  surface  where 
they  abound,  the  character  of  a  stony  soil.  A  third  and 
more  minute  division  is  called  a  gravelly  soil  ;  a  fourth  is  a 
sandy  soil ;  a  fifth  constitutes  a  loam  ;  and  a  sixth,  in  which 
the  particles  of  earth  are  reduced  to  their  greatest  fineness, 
is  known  under  the  name  of  a  clay  soil.  The  two  first 
mentioned,  are  not  properly  distinct  soils,  as  the  only  support 
of  any  profitable  vegetation,  is  to  be  found  in  the  finer  earth 
in  which  the  rocks  and  stones  are  embedded.  In  frequent 
instances,  they  materially  benefit  the  crops,  in  the  influence 
produced  l>y  the  shade,  moisture,  and  protection  from  winds, 
afforded  by  them ;  and  by  the  gradual  decomposition  of  such 
as  contain  lime,  potash  and  other  fertilising  materials,  they 
contribute  to  the  support  of  the  soil.  This  last  effect  is 
aided  by  the  apparently  worthless  vegetable  life  which  they 
yield  to  the  living  mosses  that  cling  to  their  sides  and  every 


12  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

where  penetrate  their  fissures,  thus  imperceptibly  corroding 
the  solid  structures  and  preparing  them  for  future  usefulness 
as  soils.  If  we  add  to  the  above,  a  peat  or  vegetable  soil, 
we  shall  have  the  material  divisions  of  soils,  as  distinguished 
by  their  texture. 

Other  classifications  of  Soils. —  Soils  are  also  dis- 
tinguished by  their  tendency  to  absorb  and  retain  water, 
gravel  and  sand  holding  very  little,  while  clay  and  peat 
readily  absorb  and  retain  a  great  deal;  by  their  constant  satu- 
ration from  perennial  springs,  which  are  called  springy  soils; 
b)j  the  quantity  otj  veffetable  and  animal  matter  they  contain ; 
"by  tfi^ir  poi\)9ity  ;(iS*:adl]g?siveness  ;  by  their  chemical  charac- 
te^,*^vheth'el'  silibidus','  argillaceous  or  calcareous  ;  by  the 
qual|tj*4i>d*fl[aii3re  jjf.Ulie'  vegetation  they  sustain  ;  and  lastly, 
.ari<{  !by*far.tne4tt035i«ipol>t?int,  they  are  distinguished  by  their 
fertility  or  barrenness,  the  result  of  the  proper  adjustment  and 
combination  of  most  of  the  conditions  enumerated.  Deserts 
of  sands,  layers  of  rocks,  stone  or  pure  gravel,  and  beds  of 
marl  and  peat  are  not  soils,  though  containing  many  of  their 
most  important  elements. 

It  is  apparent  to  the  most  casual  observer,  that  soils  fre- 
quently and  by  almost  imperceptible  degrees,  change  from 
one  character  to  another,  and  thnt  no  classification  therefore, 
however  minute,  will  suffice  to  distinguish  each.  Some 
obvious  yet  simple  distinctions,  which  are  usually  recognised, 
must  nevertheless  be  assumed  for  future  reference.  For  this 
purpose,  and  to  avoid  unnecessary  deviations  from  what 
should  be  a  common  standard,  we  shall  adopt  the  arrange- 
ments as  made  by  Professor  Johnston,  which  is  based  princi- 
cipally  upon  their  chemical  constituents. 

*'  1".  Pure  day  (pipe-clay)  consisting  of  about  60  of  silica 
and  40  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron,  for  the  inost  part  chem- 
ically combined.  It  allows  no  silicious  sand  to  subside  when 
diffused  through  water,  and  rarely  forms  any  extent  of  soil. 

"  2".  Strongest  clay  soil  (tile-clay,  unctuous  clay)  consists  of 
pure  clay  mixed  with  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  a  silicious  sand, 
which  can  be  separated  from  it  by  boiling  and  decantation. 

,>;3".  Clay  loam  differs  from  a  clay  soil,  in  allowing  from 
15^to  30  per  cent,  of  fine  sand  to  be  separated  from  it  by 
washing,  as  above  described.  By  this  admixture  of  sand,  its 
parts  are  mechanically  separated,  and  hence  its  freer  and 
more  friable  nature. 

*'  4".  A  loamy  soil  deposits  from  30  to  60  per  cent,  of  sand, 
by  mechanical  washing.  V 


SOILS.  13 

"  5°.  A  sandy  ham  leaves  from  60  to  90  per  cent,  of  sand, 
and 

"  6°.  A  sandy  soil  contains  no  more  than  10  per  cent,  of 
pure  clay. 

*'  The  mode  of  examining  with  the  view  of  naming  soils, 
as  above,  is  very  simple.  It  is  only  necessary  to  spread  a 
weighed  quantity  of  the  soil  in  a  thin  layer  upon  writing 
paper,  and,  to  dry  it  for  an  hour  or  two  in  an  oven  or  upon  a 
iiot  plate,  the  heat  of  which  is  not  sufficient  to  discolor  the 
paper  —  the  loss  of  weight  gives  the  water  it  contained. 
While  this  is  drying,  a  second  weighed  portion  may  be 
boiled  or  otherwise  thoroughly  incorporated  with  water,  and 
the  whole  then  poured  into  a  vessel,  in  which  the  heavy  sandy 
parts  arc  allowed  to  subside  until  the  fine  clay  is  beginning 
to  settle  also.  This  point  must  be  carefully  watched,  the 
liquid  then  poured  ofij  the  sand  collected,  dried  as  before 
upon  paper,  and  again  weighed.  This  weight  is  the  quan- 
tity of^  sand  in  the  known  weight  of  moist  soil,  which  by  the 
previous  experiment  has  been  found  to  contain  a  certain 
quantity  of  water. 

"  Thus,  suppose  two  portions,  each  200  grs.,  are  weighed, 
and  the  one  in  the  oven  loses  50  grs.  of  water,  and  the  other 
leaves  60  grs.  of  sand, —  then,  the  200  grs.  o^  moist  are  equal 
to  150  o^dry,  and  this  150  of  dry  soil  contain  60  of  sand,  or 
40  in  100  (40  per  cent.).  It  would,  therefore,  be  properly 
called  a  loam^  or  loamy  soil. 

"  But  the  above  classification  has  reference  only  to  the  clay 
and  sand,  while  we  know  that  lime  is  an  important  constituent 
of  soils,  of  which  ihey  are  seldom  entirely  destitute.  We 
have,  therefore, 

'*  7".  Marly  soils,  in  which  the  proportion  of  lime  is  more 
than  5  but  does  not  exceed  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight 
of  the  dry  soil.  The  mail  is  a  sandy,  loamy,  or  clay  marl, 
according  as  the  proportion  of  clay  it  contains  would  place  it 
under  the  one  or  other  denomination,  supposing  it  to  be 
entirely  free  from  lime,  or  not  to  contain  more  than  5  per 
cent.,  and 

'*  S°,  Calcareous  soils,  in  which  the  lime  exceeding  20  per 
cent,  becomes  the  distinguishing  constituent.  These  are 
also  calcareous  clays,  calcareous  loams,  or  calcareous  sands, 
according  to  the  proportion  of  clay  and  sand  which  are 
present  in  them. 

"  The  detei-mination  of  the  lime  also,  when  it  exceeds  5 
per  cent.,  is  attended  with  no  difficulty. 


14  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

"To  100  grs.  of  the  dry  soil  diffused  through  half  a  pint  of 
cold  water,  -add  half  a  wine  glass-full  of  muriatic  acid  (the 
spirit  of  salt  of  the  shops),  stir  it  occasionally  during  the  day, 
and  let  it  stand  over  night  to  settle.  Pour  off  the  clear 
liquor  in  the  morning  and  fill  up  the  vessel  with  water,  to 
wash  away  the  excess  of  acid.  When  the  water  is  again 
clear,  pour  it  off,  dry  the  soil  and  weigh  it  —  the  loss  will 
amount  generally  to  about  one  per  cent,  more  than  the  quan- 
tity of  lime  present.  The  result  will  be  sufficiently  near, 
however,  for  the  purposes  of  classification.  If  the  loss 
exceed  5  grs.  from  100  of  the  dry  soil,  it  may  be  classed 
among  the  marls,  if  more  than  20  grs.  among  the  calcareous 
soils. 

"  Lastly,  vegetable  matter  is  sometimes  the  characteristic 
of  a  soil,  which  gives  rise  to  a  further  division  of 

"  9°.  Vegetable  moulds,  which  arc  of  various  kinds,  from  the 
garden  mould,  which  contains  from  5  to  10  per  cent.,  to  the 
peaty  soil,  in  which  the  organic  matter  may  amount  to  60  or 
70.  These  soils  also  are  clayey,  loamy,  or  sandy,  according 
to  the  predominant  character  of  the  earthy  admixtures. 

"  The  method  of  determining  the  amount  of  vegetable 
matter  for  the  purposes  of  classitication,  is  to  dry  the  soil  well 
in  an  oven,  and  weigh  it ;  then  to  heat  it  to  dull  redness  over 
a  lamp  or  a  bright  fire  till  the  combustible  matter  is  burned 
away.  The  loss  on  again  weighing  is  the  quantity  of  organic 
matter." 

The  foregoing  are  only  such  general  divisions  as  possess 
properties  sufficiently  common  to  each,  to  require  a  treatment 
nearly  similar.  Besides  their  principal  component  parts, 
every  soil  must  contain  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  all  the 
elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  vegetables. 
They  may  have  certain  substances  which  are  not  necessary 
to  vegetable  life,  and  some  one  or  all  of  such  as  are,  may  be 
contained  in  excess;  yet  to  sustain  a  healthy  prolific  vegeta- 
lion,  they  must  hold,  and  in  a  form  fitted  to  its  support,  silex 
alumina^  carbonate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  lime,  potash,  soda, 
magnesia,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  oxide  of  iron,  manganese, 
chlorine, and  probably  iodine.  These  are  called  the  inorganic, 
or  earthy  parts  of  soils,  as  they  are  found  almost  ex- 
clusively  in  combination  with  earths,  salts,  or  minerals. 
They  however  constitute  from  less  than  0.5  (one  half  of  one) 
to  over  10  per  cent  of  all  vegetables.  In  addition  to  these, 
fertile  soils  must  also  contain,  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen  and 
hydrogen,  which  are  called  the  organic  parts  of  soils,  from^ 


SOILS.  15 

their  great  preponderance  in  vegetables  and  animals,  of  which 
they  constitute  from  about  90,  to  over  99  per  cent  of  their 
entire  substance. 

Clay  soils — their  characteristics  and  treatment. 
— Cla}  soils  ai*e  usually  denominated  cold  and  wet,  from  their 
strong  affinity  to  water,  which  they  generally  hold  in  too  great 
excess  for  rapid  or  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  alumina  which 
exists  in  clay,  not  only  combines  with  water  forming  a 
chemical  compound,  but  the  nihiutc  division  of  its  particles 
and  their  consequent  compactness,  oppose  serious  obstacles 
to  the  escape  of  such  us  rests  in  or  upon  it.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  placing  it  in  a  condition  to  obviate  these  essen- 
tial  defects. 

The  most  effectual  method  of  disposing  of  the  surplus 
water  in  clay  soils,  is  by  underdraining.  This  draws  off 
rapidly  yet  by  imperceptible  degrees,  all  the  excess  of  water, 
and  opens  it  to  the  free  admission  of  atmospheric  air ;  and 
this,  in  its  passage  through  the  soil,  imparts  heat  and  such  of 
the  gases  it  contains,  as  are  useful  in  sustaining  vegetation. 
When  these  are  not  constructed,  open  drains  should  be  formed 
wherever  water  stands  after  rains.  The  slight  elevation 
and  depression  ot  the  surface  made  by  careful  plowing,  will 
probably  be  sufficient,  if  they  terminate  in  some  ravine  or 
artificial  ditch,  and  have  size  and  declivity  enough  to  pass  off 
the  water  rapidly. 

Clay  soils  are  greatly  improved  by  coarse  vegetable  manures, 
straw,  corn-stalks,  chips,  &;c.,  which  tend  to  the  separation 
of  its  particles.  The  addition  of  sand  is  very  beneficial,  but 
this  is  too  expensive  for  large  fields.  Lime  is  also  a  valuable 
material  for  a  clay  soil,  as  by  the  chemical  combinations 
which  are  thereby  induced,  the  extreme  tenacity  of  the  soil  is 
broken  up,  while  the  lime  adds  an  ingredient  of  fertility,  not 
before  possessed  by  it  perhaps,  to  an  adequate  extent. 
Gypsum  has  the  same  effect  in  a  more  powerful  degree. 
Paring  and  burning  (by  which  the  surface  containing  vegeta- 
ble matter  is  collected  into  heaps  and  fired,  reducing  the  mass 
to  a  charred  heap,  which  is  again  spread  over  and  mixed  with 
the  soil,)  produce  the  same  result.  This  is  a  practice  which 
has  been  long  in  use  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  and 
although  attended  with  immediate  and  powerful  results,  it 
is  too  expensive  for  general  introduction  into  a  country, 
where  labor  is  high,  and  land  and  its  products  comparatively 
cheap. 


16  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

The  plowing  of  clay  lands  for  spring  crops  should  be  done 
in  the  autumn  if  practicable,  by  which  their  adhesiveness  is 
temporarily  destroyed,  the  earth  is  finely  pulverized  by  the 
frost,  and  ihey  are  left  in  the  finest  condition  for  early  spring 
sowing,  and  without  additional  working.  If  plowed  in  the 
spring,  it  should  bo  done  when  they  are  neither  too  wet  or 
dry ;  if  the  former,  the  earth  subsequently  bakes,  and  for  a  long 
time  it  is  almost  impenetrable  to  the  hoe  or  the  teeth  of  the 
harrow  ;  if  too  dry,  they  are  so  compact  as  to  be  turned  over 
only  with  great  effort,  and  then  in  solid  lumps.  The  action 
of  the  atmosphere,  will  pulverize  these  masses  of  baked  earth 
after  a  time,  but  not  sufliciently  early  for  the  convenience  or 
advantage  of  such  crops  as  are  intended  immediately  to  fol- 
low the  plowing. 

No  soils  are  so  tenacious  of  the  manures  which  may  be 
incorporated  with  them  as  the  clays.  They  form  an  inti- 
mate combination,  both  mechanical  and  chemical,*  and  hold 
them  securely  against  waste  from  drainage  or  evaporation  for 
an  indefinite  time,  till  the  growing  crops  demand  them. 
They  also  greedily  seize  upon  and  hoard  up  all  such  fertil- 
izing principles  as  are  conveyed  to  them  by  the  air  and 
rains.     We  may  mention  as  an  example  of  their  efficiency 

*  By  mechanical  in  the  sense  above  used,  is  understood  the  external  relation  of 
bodies,  which  is  nearly  equivalent  in  its  meaninj;  in  this  connexion,  to  artificial. 
Thus  the  clay  envelopes  the  manures,  and  from  its  impervious  nature,  it  shields 
it  from  escape  either  by  drainage  or  evaporation,  and  almost  as  efleclually  as  if 
it  were  enclosed  in  an  carthern  vessel. 

By  chemical  is  meant,  its  internal  or  constitutional  character.  Thus  clay  not 
only  absorbs  the  gases  which  are  brought  into  contact  with  it  from  manures,  from 
moisture  and  from  air,  as  a  sponge  absorbs  water  -,  but  it  also  forms  new  combina- 
tions with  them,  which  change  the  original  nature  of  these  elementary  principles, 
and  from  light  evanescent  gases,  they  becone  component  parts  of  solid  bodies,  in 
which  condition  they  are  retained  till  exhausted  by  the  growing  vegetation. 

These  terms  are  important,  and  should  be  clearly  imderstood.  For  the  sake  of 
aiding  the  youngsmdent,  we  will  give  some  further  examples.  If  we  take  apiece 
of  crystalized  marble,  compact  uncrystalized  limestone,  and  chalk,  we  shall  have 
three  substances  exactly  alike  in  their  c/i eTnica I chnractet ;  for  they  are  all  combi- 
nations of  carbonic  acid  and  lime  associated  together  in  precisely  the  same  propor- 
tions IJut  in  their  external  arrangemeiUs,  as  they  appear  in  n  recent  fracture  to 
ilje  eye  and  touch,  that  is  in  their  /w^cAan/cai  arrangements,  they  are  all  totally 
dissimilar. 

Again— ff  wc  take  the  pure  lime  (quick  lime)  that  is  obtained  from  each  of  the 
foregoing  by  subjecting  them  to  an  intense  heat,  by  which  the  carbonic  acid  is 
expelled,  and  pour  upon  it  nearly  one  third  of  its  weight  of  water,  great  heat  is 
developed  and  the  lime  both  mcchnnically  absorbs,  and  chemically  combines  with 
it,  forpiing  a  new  compound,  or  salt,  which  is  a  hydrate  of  lime. 

If  sftnd  (mostly  silex)  be  added  to  the  lime  wiih  water,  and  mechanically  mixed 
or  stirred  together  and  allowed  to  remain  for  a  sufficient  time,  they  will  combine 
chemically,  forming  silicate  of  lime,  (the  common  morlar  of  stone  masons.) 

Sand  (silex)  stirred  in  with  clay  (an  Impure  alumina)  is  »«fr/(onica//y  mixed; 
if  then  subject  to  a  strong  heat  as  in  making  brick,  they  become  chemically 
united,  forming  silicate  of  alumina,  inseparable  by  any  human  means  short  of  the 
chemist's  crucible.  If  we  divide  or  separate  a  slick  by  splitting  or  cutting,  it  is  a 
mechanical;  and  it  by  burning  or  charring,  it  is  a  chemical  change.  Thus  every 
alteration  either  in  nature  or  art  is  referable  to  one  of  the  above  conditions  or 
changes. 


SOILS.  17 

in  abstracting  vegetable  nutrition  from  the  atmosphere,  that 
many  of  them  when  thrown  up  from  a  great  depth  below  the 
surface,  and  entirely  destitute  of  organic  remains,  (vegetable 
or  animal  matter,)  after  an  exposure  for  some  months  to  its 
meliorating  influence,  become  capable  of  bearing  large  crops 
without  the  aid  of  manure.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
clays  which  rest  on  the  Onondaga  limestone,  an  extensive 
group  occupying  the  central  and  north-western  part  of  New. 
York. 

The  clays  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of 
most  of  the  grains;  and  the  red  and  white  clovers  cultivated 
in  the  United  States.  These  they  yield  in  great  profusion 
and  of  the  best  quality;  and  so  peculiarly  suited  are  they  to 
meadows  and  pasturage,  that  they  are  styled  by  way  of  emi- 
nence,  grass  lands.  They  are  justly  characterised  as  strong 
and  lasting  soils,  and  when  properly  managed  and  put  to  their 
appropriate  use,  they  are  esteemed  as  among  the  choicest  of 
the  farmer's  acres. 

Sandy  soils  ais^d  their  management. — The  character 
and  treatment  of  sandy  soils,  are  in  almost  every  particular 
the  reverse  of  those  of  clay.  They  do  not  possess  the 
property  of  adhesiveness,  and  they  have  but  little  aflinity  for 
water,  which  escapes  from  them  almost  as  soon  as  it  falls. 
They  have  but  a  slight  hold  upon  the  manures  which  are 
diffused  through  them;  they  are  loose  in  their  texture,  and  may 
be  plowed  at  any  time  with  equal  advantage,  provided  tlie 
sowing  or  planting  is  to  follow  immediately. 

As  clay  soils  arc  much  benefitted  by  a  mixture  of  sand,  so 
likewise  are  sandy  soils  greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of 
clay,  yet  in  a  much  higher  degree;  for  though  it  would  never 
pay,  as  a  general  rule,  to  add  sand  to  clay,  yet  the  addition  of 
a  few  loads  of  the  stifiest  clay  to  a  light  sand,  would  in  almost 
every  instance  much  more  than  compensate  for  the  trouble 
and  expense.  For  this  purpose,  the  clay  should  be  thinly 
spread  in  autumn  upon  sward  land  previously  plowed,  and 
the  winter's  frost  will  effectually  separate  the  particles.  It 
should  then  be  harrowed  thoroughly  and  deeply  in  the  spring, 
and  subsequently  plowed  if  necessary.  Such  a  dressing  on 
a  light  crawling  land,  is  more  than  equivalent  to  an  equal 
quantity  of  the  best  manure,  and  will  be  permanent  in  its 
effects.  Clay  and  sand  are  necessary  to  each  other,  as 
they  both  contain  qualities  which  are  essential  to  a  good  soil; 
.  and  that  will  always  be  foimd  the  best,  whicli  has  the  proper 
proportion  of  each. 


18  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

Sandy  soils  are  improved  by  the  frequent  use  of  a  heavy 
roller ;  it  cannot  be  used  too  often.  They  require  to  be 
made  more  compact,  and  any  treatment  that  secures  this 
object,  will  be  advantageous. 

Lime,  by  its  chemical  action  on  the  constituents  of  soils, 
while  it  separates  clay,  renders  sand  more  adhesive  ;  and 
when  cheaply  obtained,  it  is  always  a  profitable  dressing  lor 
sandy  soils,  to  the  full  amount  they  may  require.  Gypsum, 
in  considerable  quantities,  has  an  eftoct  similar  to  lime,  both 
on  clay  and  sand  ;  and  when  added  in  smaller  portions,  pro- 
duces a  striking  increase  in  the  crops  of  sandy  soils.  Clay 
marls  containing  either  carbonate,  sulphate,  or  phosphate 
of  lime,  are  of  great  value  to  sandy  soils.  Equally  bene, 
ticial  are  aslies  leached  or  unleached,  peat,  or  vegetable 
manures  of  any  kind.  Some  calcareous  sands,  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  lime,  like  those  of  Egypt  and  exten- 
sive regions  in  tiie  Barbary  States,  will  produce  luxuriantly, 
if  supplied  with  a  slight  addition  of  maniu'c  and  an  abun- 
dance  of  water.  Sandy  soils  can  never  be  profitably  culti- 
vated  till  they  have  acquired  sufficient  compactness  and  fer- 
tility to  sustain  a  good  growth  of  grass  or  clover ;  and 
when  once  brought  to  this  condition,  they  are  among  the 
most  valuable. 

They  are  at  all  times,  easily  plowed  and  worked;  they  re- 
quire no  draining;  and  though  light  and  dry,  are  quick  and 
kindly  soils,  giving  an  immediate  and  full  return  for  the  labor 
and  manure  bestowed  upon  them.  When  in  a  condition  to 
produce  grass,  sheep  are  admirably  adapted  to  preserve 
and  augment  their  fertility,  and  by  their  incessant  migrations 
over  it,  their  shai*])  hoofs  pack  the  surface  closely,  producing 
the  same  effect  as  the  roller. 

Gravelly  soils,  are  in  some  respects  similar  to  sand,  but 
much  less  d'^sirable,  being  appropriately  termed  hungry. 
They  are  also  like  the  latter,  peculiarly  leachy,  but  in  an 
increased  degree,  ps^jinitting  the  rapid  escape  of  manures 
both  by  evaporation  and  drainage.  Such  a?  are  calcareous 
or  comj)osed  of  limestone  pebbles,  are  in  a  great  measure 
not  subject  to  those  objections  ;  as  the  disposing  afHiiities 
t)f  the  lime,  (of  which  enough  will  be  found  to  exist  in  the 
soil  in  a  finely  comminuted  or  divided  state,  which  in  this 
condition  is  enabled  to  act  efficiently,)  have  a  tendency  to  re- 
tain the  vegetable  matters,  thus  compacting  the  soil,  and 
holding  whatever  pabulum  or  food  of  plants,  may  from  time^ 


SOILS.  19 

to  time  be  given  to  it  for  the  wants  of  future  crops.  Unless 
of  this  latter  description,  gravelly  soils,  should  not  be  subjected 
to  tillage;  but  appropriated  to  pasturage,  when  sheep  will  keep 
them  in  the  best  and  most  profitable  condition  of  which  they 
are  capable. 

LoA:\rv  soils  being  intermediate  between  clay  and  sand, 
possess  characteristics  and  require  a  treatment  approximating 
to  one  or  the  other,  according  to  the  predominance  of  either 
quality.  They  are  among  the  most  desirable  soils  for  the 
various  purposes  of  agricidture. 

Marly  axd  calcareous  soils,  have  always  a  full  supply 
of  lime,  and  like  the  loams,  they  frequently  incline  towards  a 
clay  or  sand,  requiring  a  treatment  corresponding  to  their 
character.  Putrescent  and  vegetable  manures  increase  their 
fertility  and  they  are  held  with  great  tenacity  till  exhausted 
by  crops.  In  durability  or  lastingness  they  cannot  be 
exceeded. 

Alluvial  soils,  are  such  as  have  been  formed  from  the 
washing  of  streams.  They  vary  in  their  characteristics, 
from  a  mixed  clay  to  an  almost  pure  sand;  but  generally  they 
combine  the  components  of  soils  in  such  proportions  as  are 
designated  by  loamy  soils,  or  sandy  loams.  When  thus  formed 
they  are  exceedingly  fertile,  and  if  subject  to  the  annual 
overflow  of  a  stream,  having  its  sources  far  above  them,  they 
usually  receive  such  an  addition  to  their  productiveness,  as 
enables  tliemto  yield  large  crops  perpetually  without  further 
manuring. 

They  are  for  the  most  part  easily  worked,  and  are  suited 
to  the  various  purposes  of  tillage  and  meadows;  but  when 
exposed  to  overflowing,  it  is  safer  to  keep  them  in  grass,  as 
this  crop  is  less  liable  to  injury  by  a  freshet;  and  where  sub- 
ject to  washing  from  the  same  cause,  a  well  matted  sod  is 
the  best  protection  which  can  be  offered  against  it.  Many  of 
the  natural  grasses  which  come  into  these  mc^adows  yield 
a  fodder  of  the  highest  value 

Peaty  soils.  These  are  composed  almost  wholly  of  peat, 
and  are  frequently  called  vegetable  soils.  They  are  exten- 
sively diffused  between  the  latitudes  of  42°  and  60°  north,  at 
a  level  with  the  ocean,  and  are  frequently  found  in  much 
lower  latitudes,  when  the  elevation  of  the  surface  produces  a 
corresponding  temperature.  They  generally  occupy  low 
swampy  levels,  but  sometimes  exist  on  slight  northern 
declivities,  where  the  water  in  its  descent  is  arrested  by  a 
succession  of  basin  shaped  cavities. 


20  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Their  peaty  character  is  acquired  by  the  growth  and  partial 
decay  through  successive  ages,  of  various  aquatic  plants,  the 
principal  being  the  sphagnums  and  lichens.  In  swamps, 
many  of  which,  were  probably  small  lakes  in  their  origin, 
the  peat  is  found  of  an  unknown  depth,  reaching  in  some 
instances  beyond  30  and  40  feet.  On  declivities  and  occasion- 
al levels,  the  peat  is  sometimes  only  a  few  inches  in  thickness. 
It  is  of  a  blaclcish  or  dark  brown  color,  and  exists  in  various 
stages  of  decay,  from  the  almost  perfect  state  of  fallen  stumps 
and  leaves,  to  an  imperfectly  defined,  ligneous  mass,  or  even 
an  impalpable  powder. 

In  its  natural  state,  it  is  totally  unfit  for  any  profitable 
vegetation,  being  saturated  with  water,  of  an  antiseptic  nature 
which  effectually  resists  putrefaction  or  decay.  When  thrown 
out  of  its  native  bed  and  exposed  to  drain  for  a  few  months, 
much  of  it  is  fit  for  fuel;  and  it  is  always  of  advantage  to  tiie 
muck  heaps,  as  an  absorbent  of  the  liquid  and  gaseous  portions 
of  animal  and  other  volatile  manures;  or  it  is  of  great 
utility  when  applied  alone  to  a  dry,  gravelly  or  sandy  soil. 

Ctiltivaiian  of  peat  soils.  When  it  is  desirable  to  culti- 
vate a  peat  soil,  the  first  process  is  to  drain  it  effectually  of 
all  the  moisture  which  has  given  to  it,  and  sustained  its 
present  character.  The  drains  must  be  made  sufticiently 
near,  and  on  every  side  of  it;  and  so  deep  as  to  prevent  any 
injurious  capillary  attraction  of  the  water  to  the  surface. 
When  it  has  been  properly  drained,  the  hummocks  if  any, 
must  be  cut  up  with  the  mattock  or  spade  and  thrown  into 
heaps,  and  burnt  after  they  are  sufficiently  dried,  and  the  ashes 
scattered  over  the  surface.  These  afford  the  best  top 
dressing  it  can  receive.  Sand  or  fine  gravel,  with  a  thorough 
dressing  of  barn-yard  manure  and  effete  lime,  should  then  be 
added.  On  some  of  these,  according  as  their  composition 
approaches  to  ordinary  soils,  good  crops  of  oats,  corn,  roots, 
«&c.,  may  be  grown,  but  they  are  better  suited  to  meadows, 
and  when  thus  prepared,  They  will  yield  great  burthens  of 
clover,  timothy,  red  top,  and  such  of  the  other  grasses  as  arc 
adapted  to  moist  soils.  Subsequent  dressings  of  sand,  lime, 
manure  and  wood  ashes,  or  of  all  combined,  may  be  afterwards 
required  when  the  crops  arc  deficient,  or  the  grasses  degen- 
erate. 

Peat  contains  a  large  proportion  of  carbon,  and  the  silicates 
in  which  such  soils  are  deficient,  and  which  they  procure  only 
in  small  proportions  from  the  farm-yard  manure,  but  more 

W 


SOILS.  21 

largely  from  the  sand  or  gravel,  are  essential  to  furnish  an 
adequate  coating  for  corn  stalks,  straw  and  the  valuable 
glasses.  As  they  are  exhausted  they  must  be  again  supplied 
or  the  crops  will  fail.  Besides  yielding  an  important  food  to  the 
crop,  lime  is  essential  to  produce  decomposition  in  the  mass 
of  vegetable  matter,  as  well  as  to  combine  with  and  aid  in 
furnishing  to  the  growing  plants,  such  of  their  food  as  the 
atmosphere  contains.  Ashes  are  one  of  the  best  applications, 
as  they  possess  the  silicates,  lime,  potash,  and  other  inorganic 
materials  of  plants  in  great  abundance,  and  in  a  form  readily 
adapted  to  vegetable  nutrition.  Gypsum  is  also  a  valuable 
manure  for  peaty  soils. 

SUBSOILS  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT. 

The  efficiency  of  soils  for  producing  good  crops,  depends 
much  on  the  subsoil.  If  this  consists  of  impervious  clay  or 
hard-pan,  so  as  to  oppose  a  ready  escape  to  the  water,  it  is 
evident  the  accumulation  of  the  hea^y  rains,  will  materially 
injure  the  vegetation  above  them ;  for  it  is  certain  that  while 
nothing  is  more  essential  to  productive  crops  than  an  adequate 
supply  of  moisture  to  the  roots,  nothing  is  more  injurious  than 
their  immersion  in  stagnant  water.  When  such  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  subsoil,  it  should  be  under-drained  if  possible, 
or  if  this  be  not  practicable,  it  should  be  broken  up  and 
loosened  by  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow. 

A  variety  of  plovv^s  have  been  constructed  for  this  purpose, 
but  unless  it  be  intended  to  deepen  the  soil  by  an  admixture 
of  manures,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  bringing  up  the 
subsoil  to  mix  with  that  on  the  surface.  In  addition  to  the 
more  ready  escape  of  water  thus  secured  by  breaking  it  up, 
the  air  is  also  admitted,  which  enables  the  roots  to  strike 
deeper,  and  draw  their  nourishment  from  a  much  greater 
depth.  The  increased  distance  through  which  the  roots 
penetrate,  furnishes  them  with  additional  moisture  during 
a  season  of  drought,  thereby  securing  a  luxuriant  crop  when 
it  might  otherwise  be  destroyed.  This  is  frequently  a  great 
item  in  the  profit  of  the  farmer;  as  besides  the  increase  of 
crop  which  follows  a  dry  hot  season  when  a  full  supply  of 
moistuie  is  furnished,  the  product  is  usually  of  better  quality; 
and  the  geneial  deficiency  of  agricultural  produce  which 
ensues  from  seasons  of  drought,  makes  his  own  more  valuable. 

As  a  result  of  this  practice,  there  is  also  a  gradual  increase 
in  the  depth  of  the  soil,  as  the  fine  and  more  soluble  parti- 
cles of  the  richer  materials  above  are  constantly  working 


22  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

down  and  enriching  the  loosened  earth  below  ;  and  in  time 
this  becomes  good  soil,  which  in  proportion  to  its  depth, 
increases  the  area  from  which  the  roots  derive  their  nulri- 
ment.  So  manifest  are  the  advantages  which  have  followed 
the  use  of  subsoil  plows,  that  they  have  been  extensively 
introduced  of  late  years  among  the  indispensable  tools  of 
the  better  class   of  agriculturists. 

When  the  subsoil  is  loose  and  leechy,  consisting  of  an 
excess  of  sand  or  gravel,  thereby  allowing  the  too  ready 
escape  of  moisture  and  the  soluble  portions  of  manures,  the 
subsoil  plow  is  not  only  unnecessary,  but  positively  injurious. 
In  this  case  the  surface  soil  should  be  somewhat  deepened  by 
the  addition  of  vegetable  manures,  so  as  to  afford  a  greater 
depth,  through  which  they  must  settle  before  they  can  get 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots ;  and  the  supply  of  moisture 
is  thereby  much  augmented.  It  is  better  however,  to  kee[) 
lands  of  this  character  in  wood,  or  permanent  pasture. 
They  are  at  best  ungrateful  soils,  and  make  a  poor  return 
for  the  labor  and  manure  bestowed  upon  them. 

If  there  be  a  diversity  in  the  character  of  the  sub  and 
surface  soil,  one  being  inclined  to  sand  and  gravel,  and  the 
other  to  marl  or  clay,  a  great  improvement  \v\\\  be  secured 
by  allowing  the  plow  to  reach  so  far  down  as  to  bring  up 
and  incorporate  with  the  soil,  some  of  the  ingredients  in 
which  it  is  wanting.  This  admixture  is  also  of  remarkable 
])enefit  in  old  or  long  cultivated  soils,  which  have  become 
deficient  in  inorganic  matters  and  in  th'^ir  texture. 

The  effect  of  long  continued  cultivation,  besides  exhausting 
what  is  essential  to  the  earthy  part  of  plants,  is  to  break 
down  the  coarser  particles  of  the  soil,  by  the  mechanical 
action  of  the  plow,  harrow,  &;c.,  and  in  a  much  more  rapid 
degree,  by  the  chemical  combinations  which  cultivation  and 
manuring  produce.  A  few  years  suffice  to  exhibit,  striking  ex- 
amples  in  the  formation  and  decomposition  of  rocks  and  stones. 
{Stalactites  and  various  specimens  o(  limestone,  indurated 
clays,  sandstone  and  breccias  or  pudding  stones,  are  formed 
in  favorable  circumstances,  almost  under  our  eye  ;  uhile 
some  limestones,  shales,  sandstones,  6lc.^  break  down  in  largo 
masses  annually,  from  the  combined  cflect  of  moisture,  heat 
and  frost.  The  same  changes  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  con- 
stantly going  forward  in  the  soil,  and  much  more  rapidly 
while  under  cultivation.  The  general  tendency  of  these 
surface  changes  is  towards  pulverization.  The  particles 
forming  the  soil,  from  the   impalpable   mite  of  dust,  to  the 

if 


SOILS.  23 

large  pebbles,  and  even  stones  and  rocks,  are  continually 
broken  up  by  the  combined  action  of  the  vital  roots  and  the 
constituents  of  soils,  by  which  new  elements  of  vegetable 
food  are  developed  and  become  available,  and  in  a  form  so 
minute^  as  to  be  imbibed  by  the  spongioles  ot  the  roots,  and 
by  the  absorbent  vessels,  they  are  afterwards  distributed 
ill  their  appropriate  places  in  the  plant.  Where  this  action 
has  been  going  on  for  a  long  period,  a  manifestly  beneficial 
oliect  has  immediately  followed  from  bringing  up  and  mixing 
with  the  superficial  earth,  portions  of  the  subsoil  which  have 
never  before  been  subject  to  cultivation. 

A  subsoil  which  is  permeable  to  water,  is  sometimes 
imperceptibly  beneficial  to  vegetation,  not  only  by  allowing 
the  latent  moisture  to  ascend  and  yield  a  necessary  supply 
to  the  plants,  but  a  moisture  frequently  charged  with  lime 
and  various  saline  matters,  which  the  capillary  attraction 
brings  from  remote  depths  below  the  surface.  It  is  probably 
from  this  cause,  that  some  soils  produce  crops  far  beyond  the 
yield  which  might  be  reasonably  looked  for  from  the  fertili- 
zing materials  actually  contained  in  them.  This  operation 
is  rapidly  going  forward  during  the  heat  of  summer.  The 
water  thus  charged  with  saline  matters  ascends  and  evaporates 
at  and  below  the  surface,  leaving  them  diffused  throughout 
the  soil.  Afl;er  long  continued  dry  weather,  a  thin  white 
coating  of  these  salts  is  frequently  discernible  on  the  ground. 

Where  rain  seldom  or  never  falls,  this  result  is  noticeable  in 
numerous  and  sometimes  extensive  beds  of  quiescent  (not 
shifting)  sand.  Deposits  ofttimes  occur  several  inches  in 
thickness.  Such  are  the  extensive  beds  of  impure  muriate 
of  soda  and  other  salts  in  the  arid  deserts  of  California  ;  in 
the  southern  parts  of  Oregon;  the  nitrates  found  in  India, 
Egypt,  Peru,  and  various  other  parts  of  the  world. 

ADDITIONAL    PROPERTIES    OF  SOILS. 

Besides  the  qualities  of  soils  already  noticed,  there  are 
several  physical  conditions  which  affect  their  value.  They 
should  be  of  sufficient  depth,  friable,  or  easily  pulverized, 
they  should  possess  the  right  color,  and  be  susceptible  of  the 
proper  admission  and  escape  of  heat,  air,  and  moisture. 

Jethro  Tull,  who  wrote  more  than  a  century  ago  on  the  sub- 
ject of  agriculture,  maintained  that  if  a  soil  be  worked  to  a 
proper  depth  and  perfectly  well  pulverized,  nothing  more  is 
necessary  to  insure  an  indefinite  succession  of  the  most 
luxuriant  cropg  without  the  aid  of  njajjyrps;  and  it  must  be 


24  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

confessed  his  practice,  gave  some  apparently  strong  confirma- 
tions of  his  theory.  By  carrying  tillage  far  below  the  surface, 
thus  securing  the  minute  division  of  the  earth,  and  render- 
ing it  permeable  to  the  roots,  he  insured  the  free  access  of  air 
and  moisture,  which  are  among  the  first  and  most  important 
requisites  in  the  growth  of  vegetables. 

But  Tull  wrote  before  agriculture  became  a  science,  and 
omitted  to  estimate  the  large  amount  of  fertile  ingredients 
which  every  crop  takes  out  of  the  soil,  and  which  can  only  be 
supplied  by  the  addition  of  fresh  materials.  A  succession  of 
crops  would  therefore,  so  far  reduce  the  soil  as  to  render  it 
necessary  to  add  manures,  or  vegetation  must  inevitably  fail. 
This  careful  laborious  practice  could  only  for  the  time  being, 
enhance  the  crop  and  prolong  its  available  supplies;  yet  in 
accomplishing  even  this  object,  his  example  is  worthy  of  the 
imitation  of  every  tiller  of  the  soil. 

Friableness  of  the  soil,  is  a  quality  equally  removed 
from  the  adhesiveness  of  strong  clay,  or  the  openness  of  loose 
sand.  Good  loams,  and  fertile  alluvial  soils,  always  possess 
this  property.  When  stirred  by  the  plow,  the  spade,  or  the 
hoe,  the  earth  should  fall  and  crumble  readily,  although  wet. 
Such  a  condition  secures  a  ready  admission  to  the  roots,  which 
thus  easily  pervade  the  soil,  and  draw  from  it  in  every  direc- 
tion, their  necessary  support.  Under  draining  and  the 
addition  of  coarse  manures  to  clay,  fermented  manures  and 
ashes  to  sand,  and  lime  and  gypsum  to  both,  will  materially 
enhance  their  friableness. 

Color  is  an  essential  feature  in  soils,  and  like  friableness, 
it  has  an  important  relation  to  their  capacity  for  heat  and 
moisture.  Dark  colored  earths,  and  black  in  the  highest 
degree,  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than  any  other  when  exposed 
to  a  temperature  above  their  own,  and  it  escapes  with  equal 
readiness  when  their  relative  temperatere  is  reversed. 

A  rough  pulverised  surface,  which  is  seen  in  the  minute 
inequalities  of  a  friable  soil,  produces  the  same  result. 
During  the  heat  of  the  day,  especially  when  the  sun's  rays 
fall  upon  the  earth,  the  dark  friable  soil  imbibes  the  heat  free- 
ly, and  transmits  it  to  the  remotest  roots,  thus  securing  warmth 
to  the  plant,  which  is  one  of  the  necessary  conditions  of  its 
growth.  When  the  temperature  of  the  air  falls,  on  the 
approach  of  evening,  a  reversed  action  in  the  soil  takes  place 
by  which  the  heat  as  rapidly  escapes.  This  immediately 
brings  the  suiface  to  "the  dew  point"  and  secures  a  copious 


¥ 


SOILS.  25 

deposit  of  moisture,  which  a  friable  soil  speedily  conveys  to 
every  part  of  the  roots. 

Tlie  dew  point  is  attained  when  the  surface  of  any  object 
is  below  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air  ;  and  the 
careful  observer  will  not  fail  to  discover  the  formation  of 
dew,  not  only  after  the  sun  has  risen,  and  long  before  he 
sinks  below  the  horizon,  when  the  condition  above  indicated 
exists  ;  but  sometimes  even  in  the  fervor  of  a  mid-day  sun, 
when  the  thick  corn  or  any  luxuriant  vegetable  growth 
repels  his  fierce  rays  from  the  earth.  In  many  instances, 
the  rank,  dark  growing  crops  themselves,  when  shielded  from 
the  sun's  rays  by  their  overspreading  tops,  become  rapid 
condensers  of  atmospheric  vapor,  and  the  plant  drinks  in  at 
every  pore,  the  wholesome  and  nutritious  aliment,  and  fre- 
quently collects  a  surplus,  which  streams  down  its  sides  to  the 
thirsty  soil  beneath.  The  principle  is  further  illustrated  by 
the  deposit  of  moisture  in  large  globules  on  the  surface  of 
any  vessel  or  object  in  the  shade,  which  is  sensibly  below 
the  surrounding  temperature,  as  is  shown  by  an  earthen 
or  metallic  vessel  filled  with  cold'  water  and  set  in  a  w^arm 
room  on  a  summer's  day. 

The  proper  capacity  of  soils  for  imbibing  and  parting  with 
moisture  gives  them  another  decided  advantage  over  others 
which  have  it  in  an  imperfect  degree;  as  it  is  found  by  recent 
experiments,  that  rich  porous  soils  which  are  readily  penetra- 
ted by  water  and  air,  absorb  the  nutritious  gases,  (oxygen, 
nitrogen,  and  their  compounds,  nitric  and  carbonic  acid, 
ammonia,  &c.)  largely  from  the  atmosphere,  and  that  they  do 
this  to  an  appreciable  extent,  only  while  moist.  The  effect 
of  this  will  readily  be  estimated,  from  the  well  known  bene- 
ficial influence  exerted  on  the  growing  plant  by  the  presence 
of  these  important  elements. 

LigM  colored  clays,  marls  and  sands,  are  neither  in  their 
mechanical  texture,  friableness  or  color,  the  best  suited  to 
promote  the  growth  of  plants.  Peat  soils,  from  their  too 
great  affinity  for  water  in  their  natural  condition,  are  even 
less  adapted  to  the  object  than  either  of  the  preceding. 

Schubler  has  found  that  during  12  hours  in  the  night, 
when  the  air  was  moist,  1000  lbs  of  entirely  dry  quartz*  or 
common  sand,  did  not  gain  a  pound ;  calcareous  sand  gained 
2  lbs  ;  loamy  soil  21  lbs ;  clay  loam  25  lbs ;  such  as  were 

*  Quartz  as  analyzed  by  Bergman,  gave  93  per  cent,  of  siiei;  0  of  alumina ;  and 
1  of  oxide  of  iron.  It  comes  so  near  a  pure  silica,  that  in  treating  of  it  agricultu- 
rally, we  speak  of  it  as  silex  or  silica. 

A 


26  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

rich  in  vegetable  mould  still  more,  Avhile  peats  absorbed  a 
much  larger  per  cent,  than  either. 

Davy  also  found,  that  the  same  quantity  of  very  fertile  and 
perfectly  dry  soil  on  exposure  gained  18  lbs  in  one  hour ;  a 
good  sandy  soil  under  the  same  circumstances  absorbed  11 
pounds  ;  a  coarse  inferior  sand,  8  lbs,  and  an  almost  worthless 
heath  gained  but  3  lbs. 

The  power  of  soils  in  retaining  water,  is  somewhat  pro- 
portionate to  their  power  of  absorbing  it :  — 

Of  its  own  weight. 

Quartz  sand  is  saturated  when  it  contains  24  per  ct. 
Calcareous  sand         "  "  »       .  28       « 

Loamy  soil  "  "  "         38       " 

Clay  loam  *'  "  *'         47       " 

Peat   (about)  "  "  <'         80       " 

It  is  thus  evident  that  perfection  is  not  obtained  in  either 
sandy,  gravelly,  clay  or  peat  soils,  as  they  are  characterized 
in  the  classification  w(^  have  assumed.  It  is  only  when  they 
have  been  improved  by  partial  admixture  with  each  other, 
and  charged  with  the  proper  quantity  of  vegetable  manures, 
and  the  salts  which  are  requisite  for  their  fertility  ;  when 
they  have  been  drained  wherever  necessary  to  free  them 
from  stagnant  water,  whether  upon  or  within  the  soil,  or  to 
remove  any  noxious  springs  which  sometimes  contain  mat. 
ters  in  solution  injurious  to  vegetation ;  and  finally  when  the 
subsoil  is  in  the  proper  condition  to  facilitate  the  free  passage 
of  the  roots  in  every  direction — it  is  only  when  all  these 
conditions  exist,  that  the  fullest  products  from  soils  can  be 
realized. 

It  is  absolutely  essential  to  profitable  cultivation,  that  all 
the  earthy  substances  required  by  the  crops  should  exist  in  the 
soil  in  sufficient  quantities,  and  in  an  accessible  form  to 
supply  its  wants.  The  proportions  may  be  various,  one 
sometimes  greatly  predominating  over  another,  as  is  suffi- 
ciently obvious  in  the  equally  productive  powers  of  good 
clays,  sands  and  peats;  yet  in  every  instance  it  will  be  found, 
unless  owing  to  a  heavy  coating  of  manures,  and  a  peculiarly 
favorable  season,  that  they  can  be  relied  on  for  such  constant 
results,  only  when  they  have  been  so  ameliorated  as  to 
approximate  towards  the  character  of  loams. 


SOILS. 


27 


The  following  is  an  analysis  of  three  specimens  of  very 
fertile  soils,  made  by  Sprengel  : 


Soil  near 

From  Uie  bank 

lofthe  Weser. 

Oeterbrtich. 

near  Hoya. 

near  Weserbe. 

Silica,  Quartz,  Sand  and  Silicates 

84-510 

71-849 

83318 

Alumina          .... 

6-435 

9350 

3-085 

Oxides  of  Iron 

2395 

5-410 

5  840 

Oxide  of  Manganese 

0450 

0-925 

0620 

Lime               .... 

0740 

0987 

0-720 

Majy:nesia        .... 

0-525 

0245 

0  120 

Potash  and  Soda  extracted  bj'  water  0-009 

0007 

0005 

Phosphoric  Acid 

0-120 

0-131 

0065 

Sulphuric  Acid 

0046 

0174 

0-025 

Chlorine  in  common  ?alt 

0006 

0-002 

0006 

Ilumic  Acid 

0-780 

1  270 

0800 

Insoluble  Humus     . 

2995 

7-550 

4126 

Oriranic  matters  containing  nitrogen  0  960 

2000 

1-220 

Water             .         .         .         • 

0  029 

0-100 

0-150 

The  above  had  remained 
the  second  was  remarkable 
grass  when  fed  to  cattle. 

The  following  are  arable  lands  of  great  fertility : 


100  100  100 

for  a  long   time  in   pasture,  and 

for  the  fattening  qualities  of  its 


1 

2 

From  Ohio. 

Soil  from  Mornvia. 

Soil. 

Subsoil. 

Silica  and  fine  Sand 

77  209 

87-143 

94-261 

Alumina 

8514 

5-666 

1-376 

Oxides  of  Iron     . 

6  592 

2-220 

2-336 

Oxide  of  Manganese 

1520 

0-360 

1-200 

Lime 

0-927 

0.564 

0-243 

Magnesia    • 

1-160 

0-312 

0-310 

Potash    chiefly    com- 

bined with  Silica 

0-140 

0  120  I 
0025  \ 

0-240 

Soda,  ditto  . 

0640 

Phosphoric  Acid  com- 

bined    with     Lime 

and  Oxide  of  Iron, 

0-651 

0-060 

trace 

Sulphuric  Acid  in  gyp- 

sum 

0011 

0-027 

0034 

Chlorine   in   common 

salt 

0-010 

0-036 

trace 

Carbonic  Acid  united 

to  the  Lime    . 

0-080 

Humic  Acid 

0-978 

1-304 

Insoluble  Humus 

0-540 

1-072 

Organic    substances 

containing  nitrogen 

1108 

1011 



Garb  of 

Lime. 

Garb,  cf 

Mag. 


3 

Soil 
From  Belgium. 

64-517 
4-810 
8-316 
0-800 
9403 

10-361 


0100 
0.013 


i2*a 

0.009 
0-003 

0-447 


100  100  100  100 

"  Of  these  soils,  the  first  had  been  cropped  for  160  years 
successively,  without  either  manure  or  naked  fallow.     The 


28  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

second  was  a  virgin  soil,  celebrated  for  its  fertility.  The 
third  had  been  unmanured  for  twelve  years,  during  the  last 
nine  of  which  it  had  been  cropped  with  beans,  barley  pota- 
toes,  winter  barley  and  red  clover,  clover,  winter  barley, 
wheat,  oats,  naked  fallow." — (Johnston.) 

Bergman  found,  that  one  of  the  most  fertile  soils  in 
Sweden  contained  30  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Chap- 
tal  analyzed  a  very  productive  soil  in  France,  which  gave  near 
25  per  cent  of  the  same,  and  7  of  organic  matter.  Tillet 
even  found  one,  and  that  the  most  fertile,  which  yielded  37.5 
of  carbonate  of  lime.  Some  of  the  best  in  the  Mississippi 
valley,  have  yielded  upon  analysis,  20  to  25  per  cent,  of 
magnesian  lime,  and  of  phosphate  of  lime,  2  to  3  per  cent. 
Many  other  soils  throughout  the  United  States,  contain  an 
equal  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Such  are  always  the 
last  to  wear  out,  and  the  first  to  recover  by  the  addition  of 
manures,  when  suffered  to  remain  uncultivated  or  in  a  state 
of  rest. 


«- 


MANURES.  1^9 


CHAPTER    II. 


MANURES. 


While  soils  are  permitted  to  remain  in  their  natural  state, 
or  if  denuded  of  their  original  foliage  and  used  only  for  pasture, 
little  or  no  change  is  perceptible  either  in  their  character  or 
productive  powers.  A  slight  change  is  however  gradually 
wrought  in  their  texture  and  capacity  for  production,  which  is 
fully  revealed  in  the  lapse  of  centuries.  The  elevated  moun- 
tain's side,  and  the  steep  declivities  of  hills,  support  a  vege- 
tation of  more  or  less  luxuriance  ;  and  a  portion  of  this, 
together  with  the  broken  twigs,  and  even  the  wasting  matter 
of  fallen  trees,  are  carried  down  by  the  rains  and  become  a 
rich  addition  to  the  lower  soils  on  which  they  ultimately  rest. 
Besides  the  vegetable  matter  thus  annually  removed  from  one 
spot  and  accumulated  upon  another,  many  of  the  fertilizing 
salts,  which  the  action  of  the  roots,  or  exposure  to  the  atmo- 
sphere has  rendered  soluble,  and  the  fine  particles  of  earth 
which  the  alternations  of  heat  and  frost,  of  rain  and  drought 
have  reduced  to  dust,  are  also  washed  out  of  the  higher  soils 
and  deposited  on  the  plains  and  vallies  below.  Such,  doubt- 
less, was  once  the  condition  of  those  secondary  bottom-lands, 
which  for  ages  probably,  received  the  rich  deposits  from 
other  soils,  but  whose  present  situations,  elevated  beyond 
even  the  extraordinary  rise  of  the  rivers  whose  course  is  near, 
show  some  radical  alteration  of  their  respective  levels,  by 
which  the  latter  no  longer  contributes  to  their  fertilization. 

These  soils  being  well  stored  with  the  food  of  plants,  and  fre- 
quently to  a  great  depth,  will  bear  large  successive  crops  for 
a  long  period  ;  and  they  have,  in  many  instances,  been  treat- 
ed by  their  first  occupants  as  if  they  were  inexhaustible.  Of 
this  description  were  the  James  river  and  other  alluvial  lands 
in  Virginia,  some  of  which  w^ere  continued  in  uninterrupted 
crops  of  corn  and  tobacco  for  more  than  a  century  without  the 
addition  of  manures.  But  they  have  long  since  become  ex- 
hausted, and  the  more  careful  planters  are  now  endeavoring 
to  resuscitate  those  worn-out  lands,    which  ought  never  to 


30  AMERICAN    AORICULTURE. 

have  become  impoverished.  Of  the  same  character  are  most 
ol  the  secondary  bottoms  on  the  Connecticut,  the  Scioto,  the 
Miami,  and  other  rivers.  The  first,  although  under  cuhiva- 
tion  for  more  than  two  centuries,  in  consequence  of  its  divis- 
ion  among  inteUigent  farmers,  has  fully  maintained  its  pro- 
ductiveness ;  and  the  latter,  if  properly  managed,  are  capable 
of  perpetual  fertility.  Ahhough  but  a  little  more  than  half  a 
century  has  elapsed  since  these  last  have  been  subject  to  the 
white  man,  they  have  already,  in  too  many  instances,  been 
severely  cropped.  The  writer  has  seen  fields,  which  he  \Vas 
assured  have  born  forty-seven  large  successive  crops  of  corn, 
and  exclusively  from  their  own  resources.  A  more  careful 
tillage  is  however  becoming  general. 

The  lower  alluvial  bottoms  that  are  frequently  overflowed, 
and  thus  receive  large  coatings  of  manures  which  are  fully 
equivalent  to  the  products  taken  off,  are  the  only  soils  which 
will  permanently  sustain  heavy  crops  without  the  aid  of  man. 
Such  are  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  the  Ganges,  and  many  of 
our  own  rivers,  which  by  the  overflowing  of  their  waters 
alone,  have  continued  to  yield  large  annual  burthens,  the  two 
former,  for  more  than  3000  years ;  but  they  are  thus  suppor- 
ted at  the  expense  of  a  natural  drainage  of  thousands  of  acres, 
which  by  this  means,  are  proportionally  impoverished.  Ma- 
nures then  in  some  form,  must  be  considered  as  absolutely 
essential  to  sustaining  soils  subjected  to  tillage. 

In  their  broadest  sense,  manures  embrace  every  material, 
which  if  added  to  the  soil,  tends  to  its  fertilization.  They 
are  appropriately  divided  into  organic  aud  inorganic ;  the  first 
embracing  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  which  have  an 
appreciable  quantity  of  nitrogen ;  the  last  comprehending  only 
such  as  are  purely  mineral  or  earthy,  and  which  in  general 
contain  no  nitrogen.  These  characteristics  are  sometimes 
partially  blended,  but  they  are  sufliciently  distinct  for  clas- 
sification. 

Much  pertinacity  has  been  exhibited  by  some  highly  intel- 
ligent minds,  who  should  have  entertained  more  liberal 
views,  as  to  the  peculiar  kinds  of  manures  necessary  to 
support  a  satisfactory  productiveness.  We  have  seen  that 
Tull  maintained,  that  the  deepening  and  thorough  pulverization 
of  the  soil  was  alone  sufficient  to  secure  perpetual  fertility. 
But  this  crude  notion,  it  is  evident  to  the  most  superficial 
modern  reader,  is  wholly  untenable.  Some  agriculturists  of 
the  present  day  however,  while  they  scout  at  the  theory  of 
Tull,  (who  was  really  a  shrewd  man  for  his  day,)  will  yet 


MANURES.  31 

claim  as  essential  to  successful  vegetation,  the  existence  in 
the  soil  of  but  a  part  only  of  the  food  of  plants.  Thus,  one 
asserts  that  the  salts  alone  will  secure  good  crops  ;  others 
maintain  that  the  nitrogenous  substances  are  the  true  source 
of  fertility;  while  still  another  class  refer  to  the  presence  of 
humus  or  geine  (the  available  product  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal decay  in  the  soil)  as  the  only  valuable  foundation  of  vege- 
table nutriment  in  all  manures.  Truth  and  sound  practice 
lie  between,  or  rather  in  the  combination  of  all  these  opinions. 

It  has  been  shown  in  a  preceding  page,  that  all  fertile  soils 
must  have  not  less  than  15,  and  more  probably  16  different 
simple  or  elementary  substances,  in  various  combinations 
with  each  other.  All  of  the  ordinary  cultivated  plants  con- 
tain potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  silica,  oxide  of 
iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid, 
chlorine,  and  frequently  iodine  ;  each  of  which,  excepting  the 
two  last,  are  in  combination  with  oxygen.  In  addition  to 
these,  they  also  have  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen  and  hydrogen. 
Other  substances  or  ultimate  principles  may  possibly  exist  in 
plants,  which  analysis  may  hereafter  detect,  but  hitherto  they 
have  eluded  the  closest  investigation. 

It  is  therefore  obvious  that  such  principles  as  all  fertile  soils 
furnish  to  vegetables,  must  be  contained  in  manures.  It  is 
no  satisfactory  answer  to  this  position  to  assert,  that  nume- 
rous experiments  have  apparently  been  successful,  of  growing 
plants  in  pure  sand  and  water ;  or  with  charcoal  and  the 
salts  added  ;  or  even  that  there  are  some  atmospheric  plants, 
that  fulfil  their  zoophytic  existence  in  air.  Growth  may  con- 
tinue for  a  long  ^time  under  such  circumstances  ;  hut  full  ma- 
turity never  arrives^  and  probably  never  can,  without  the  availa- 
ble presence  in  the  soil  of  every  element  which  enters  into  the 
composition  of  plants. 

Profitable  farming  requires  that  manures  embodying  all 
these  elements,  should  be  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  the 
soil,  to  develope  fully  and  rapidly,  such  crops  as  arc  sought 
from  it.  It  becomes  then,  a  matter  of  the  highest  consequence 
to  the  farmer  to  understand,  not  only  what  substances  may  be 
useful  as  manures  ;  but  also  how  to  apply  them  in  the  best 
manner  to  his  crops  so  far  as  they  can  be  made  profitable. 
We  shall  first  speak  of  the  inorganic  manures. 

ASHES. 

If  any  organic  matter,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  be 
burnt,  an  incombustible  substance  remains  behind,  called  the 


32 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


ash  or  ashes.  This  varies  in  different  plants  from  less  than 
1  to  over  12  per  cent,  of  their  whole  weight.  It  also  varies 
with  the  different  soils  upon  which  they  are  found,  with  the 
different  parts  of  the  same  plant,  and  in  the  different  stages  of  its 
maturity.  Thus  plants  which  grow  on  peaty  or  low,  wet  soils, 
give  a  less  proportion  of  ashes,  than  these  which  mature  upon 
soils  that  are  dry  or  rich  in  the  silicates  and  sails.  The  bark, 
leaves  and  twigs,  give  much  more  ashes  than  the  trunks  of 
trees  and  stems  of  plants ;  and  in  their  early  growth,  they 
yield  a  larger  proportion,  thiyi  after  they  have  attained  matu- 
rity. 

The  following  table,  constructed  from  several  reliable  sour- 
ces, but  principally  by  Sprengel,  arranged  in  part  by  Johnston, 
will  shew  the  relative  quantity  of  ashes  found  in  some  of  the 
more  important  objects  of  cultivation  : 


S 

1 

s 

S 

a 

S 

3 

< 

(5 

o 

o 

si 

Xi 

c3 
c 
'E 

o 

i 

o 

ID 

"S 
'R 

o 

1 

11 

VVheat— Gr'n 

2.*25 

2.40 

0.96 

0.90 

0.26 

4.00 

0.50 

0.40 

0.10 

trace 

11.77 

Sfw 

0.20 

0.29 

2.40 

0.3210. flO 

28.70 

0.37 

1.70 

0.30 

35.18 

Barley—  Gr'n 

2.78 

2.90 

i.oa 

l.SO 

0.25 

11.82 

.59 

2.10 

0.19 

trace 

23.49 

"        St'w 

l.bO 

0.4e 

5.54 

0.76 

1.46 

38.56 

1.16 

1.60 

0.70 

0.14 

0.20 

.52.42 

Oats  —  Grain 

1.50 

1.32 

0.86 

0.67 

0.14 

19.76 

0.35 

0.70 

0.10 

0.40 

25.80 

"       Straw 

8.70 

0.02 

1.52 

0.22 

0.06 

45.88 

0.79 

0.12 

0.05 

0.02 

0.02 

57.40 

Rye  —  Grain 

5.32 

* 

1.22 

0.44 

0.24 

1.64 

0.23 

0.46 

0.09 

0.42 

0.34 

10.40 

■'       Straw 

0.32 

0.11 

1.78 

0.12 

0.25 

22.97 

1.70 

0.51 

0.17 

27.93 

Field)   Bean 
Bean  S  Straw 

4.13 

8.16 

1 .65 

1.53 

0.34 

1.26 

0.69 

2.92 

0.41 

21.36 

10.56 

0.50 

0.24 

2.09 

0.10 

2.20 

0.31 

2.28 

0.80 

0.07 

0.05 

31.21 

Field  >      Pea 
Pea  5  Straw 

8.10 

7.39 

0.58 

1.36 

0.20 

4.10 

0.53 

1.90 

0.38 

0.10 

24.64 

2.3.J 

27.30 

3.42 

0.60 

9.S6 

3.37 

2.40 

0.04 

0.20 

0.07 

49.71 

Pota-  ?  Roots 
toes  5  Tops 

4.028 

2.334 

.331 

.324 

.050 

.084 

.540 

.401 

.160 

.032 

8.284 

8.19 

.09 

12.97 

1.70 

.04 

4.94 

.42 

1.97 

.50 

.02 

30.84 

Tur-  )   Roots 

2.386 

1.048 

.752 

.2.54 

■  036 

.338 

.801 

.367 

.239 

.032 

6.303 

neps  ^  Leav's 

3.23 

2.22 

6.20 

..59 

.03 

1.2? 

2.. 52 

.98 

.87 

.17 

18.09 

Carrots 

3.533 

.922 

.057 

.384 

.039 

.137 

.270 

.514 

.070 

.0.33 

.060 

6.619 

Parsneps 

2.079 

.702 

.468 

.270 

.024 

.162 

.192 

.100 

.178 

.005 

7 

4.1911 

Rye  Grass 

8.81 

3.94 

7.34 

0.90 

0.31 

27.72 

3.53 

0.25 

0.06 

52.86 

Red  Clover 

19.95 

5.29 

27.80 

3. .33 

0.14 

3.61 

4.47 

0.57 

J. 62 

74.78 

White  Clover 

•11.03 

5.79 

23.48 

3.05 

193 

14.73 

3.53 

5.05 

2.11 

0.03 

91.32 

Lucern 

13.40 

6.15 

18.31 

3.48 

).30 

3.30 

4.04 

13.07 

3.18 

0.30 

95.5? 

Sainfoin 

20.. 57 

4.37 

21 .95 

2.88 

0.66 

5.00    3.411 

9.16 

1.57 

89.57 

Included  in  I'oiash. 

In  the  foregoing  table,  the  grain,  beans,  peas,  straw  and  hay  are  estimated  after 
they  have  been  dried  in  tiie  air-,  the  roots  as  tli(>y  are  taken  from  the  field.  The 
clovers  and  grass  lose  from  .55  to  73  per  cent  of  tlieir  entire  weight  when  full  of  sap, 
lessening,  of  course,  as  they  appro.ich  to  tiie  state  of  ripening  their  seed.  The 
potato  loses  in  drying,  69  per  cent  of  water  ;  the  turnip,  91 ;  carrot,  87 ;  the  turnip 
leaf,  86;  the  carrot  leaf,  parsnep  and  parsnep  leaf,  eacli  '^l;  and  the  cabbage,  93. 

Tbere  is  much  variation  in  tne  dilVerent  specimens  of  tlie  above  .substances  sub- 
jected to  examination,  according  to  tlie  peculiar  variety,  the  different  circumstances 
and  various  stages  of  tlicir  growth.  The  oat  is  the  most  varialile  of  tlie  grains,  one 
specimen  sometimes  containing  three  times  the  quantity  ol  ash  afforded  by  others. 
The  roots  also  sometimes  vary  as  three  to  one  in  tlieir  quantity  of  ash.  As 
the  grain  and  most  of  the  other  crops  approach  to  maturity,  the  quantity  of 
some  of  the  principles  constituting  the  ash  diminish,  as  of  potash  and  soda,  their 
presence  being  no  longer  necessary  in  the  sap  to  aid  the  formation  of  the  various 
products  of  the  plants.  a 


MANURES.  88 

The  farmer  will  perceive  from  this  table,  the  great  value 
of  ashes  to  his  crops.  The  quantity  seems  small  in  compa- 
rison with  the  total  weight  of  the  vegetable  ;  yet  "small  as  it 
is,  the  aggregate  of  a  few  years  will  so  far  exhaust  the  soil  of 
one  or  more  of  the  principles  necessary  to  sustain  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  that  it  will  cease  to  yield  remunerating  returns. 
The  annual  exhaustion  of  salts  from  large  crops  of  grain,  roots 
and  grass,  is  from  180  to  more  than  250  lbs.  in  every  acre  of 
soil.  The  ashes  of  vegetables  consist  of  such  elements  as  are 
always  required  for  their  perfect  maturity,  and  it  is  evident 
they  must  furnish  one  of  the  best  manures  which  can  be  sup- 
plied for  their  growth.  They  are  to  the  earthy  parts  6f  vege- 
tables, what  milk  is  to  the  animal  system,  or  barn-yard  ma- 
nures are  to  the  entire  crop ;  they  contain  every  element, 
and  generally  in  the  right  proportions,  for  insuring  a  full  and 
rapid  growth. 

Ashes  then,  may  be  pronounced  the  best  of  the  saline  ma- 
nures. They  are  also  among  the  most  economical ;  as  from 
our  free  use  of  fuel,  they  are  largely  produced  by  almost  every 
household.  Good  husbandry  dictates  that  not  a  pound  of 
ashes  should  be  wasted,  but  all  should  be  saved  and  applied 
to  the  land  ;  and  where  they  can  be  procured  at  a  reasonable 
price,  they  should  be  purchased  for  manure.  Leached  ashes, 
though  less  valuable,  contain  all  the  elements  of  the  unleach- 
ed,  having  been  deprived  only  of  a  part  of  their  potash  and 
soda.  They  may  be  drilled  into  the  soil  with  roots  and  grain, 
sown  broadcast  on  meadows  or  pastures,  or  mixed  with  the 
muck-heap.  They  improve  all  soils  not  already  saturated 
with  the  principles  which  they  contain. 

TJie  quantity  of  ashes  that  sJioidd  be  applied  to  the  acre^  must 
depend  on  the  soil  and  crops  cultivated.  Potatoes,  turnips 
and  all  roots — clover,  lucern,  peas,  beans,  and  the  grasses 
are  great  exhausters  of  the  salts,  and  they  are|[consequently 
much  benefitted  by  ashes.  They  are  used  with  decided  ad- 
vantage for  the  above  crops  in  connexion  with  bone-dust ;  and 
for  clover,  peas  and  roots,  their  effects  are  much  enhanced 
when  mixed  with  gypsum.  Light  soils  should  have  a  small- 
er, and  rich  lands  or  clays,  a  heavier  dressing.  From  12  to  15 
bushels  per  acre  for  the  former,  and  30  for  the  latter,  is  not 
too  much  ;  or  if  they  are  leached,  the  quantity  maybe  increa- 
sed one-half,  as  they  act  with  less  energy.  Repeated  dres- 
sings of  ashes,  like  those  of  lime  and  gypsimi,  without  a  cor- 
responding addition  of  vegetable  or  barn-yard  manures,  will 
eventually  exhaust  tillage  lands. 


34  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

Ashes  inay  he  applied  to  meadow-lands,  for  a  longer  time 
than  to  any  other  crops,  and  for  this  obvious  reason.  The 
whole  surface  of  the  soil  is  closely  covered  with  vegetable 
agents,  which  are  actively  employed  in  drawing  carbon  from 
the  air  and  soil,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  stored  up  in  the 
stubble  and  roots,  which  thus  makes  it  less  important  that  the 
organic  matters  should  be  given  back  to  the  soil,  in  the  shape 
of  vegetable  or  animal  manures.  As  an  instance  of  the  rapi- 
dity with  which  this  operation  goes  forward,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  dried  roots  and  stubbie  of  a  clover-field  the  second 
year,  (and  after  one  crop  for  the  first,  and  two  for  the  second 
season  had  been  taken  off,)  yielded  56  lbs.  for  every  100  lbs. 
of  the  aggregate  crops  of  hay.  An  old  meadow  has  yielded 
400  lbs.  of  roots  for  every  100  of  hay  for  the  season.  Carbo- 
naceous and  organic  matters  are  constantly  increasing  in  pas- 
tures,  and  they  also  increase  for  a  time  in  meadows  ;  and 
will  continue  to  do  so  for  an  indefinite  period,  if  the  ashes  of 
plants  are  added  to  the  soil  nearly  to  the  amount  of  those  taken 
off.  With  this  increase  in  the  organic  elements  of  vegetation, 
(if  we  were  certain  that  nitrogen  is  accumulated  in  the  same 
ratio,  which  we  are  not,)  it  is  evident  that  the  salts  alone 
would  then  be  wanting  to  give  the  utmost  luxuriance.  But 
care  is  necessary  that  they  be  not  added  in  excess. 

CoAL-AsHES. — The  bituminous  and  anthracite  coals  afford 
ashes,  and  although  inferior  in  quality  to  those  made  from 
wood  and  vegetables,  are  like  them,  a  valuable  manure  and 
they  should  be  applied  to  the  land  in  a  similar  manner.  If 
they  contain  many  cinders  from  not  having  been  thoroughly 
burned,  they  are  more  suited  to  heavy  than  to  light  soils  ;  as 
they  tend  to  their  mechanical  division,  which  though  beneli- 
cial  to  the  former,  are  injurious  to  the  latter. 

Ashes  of  Sea-Weeds  or  Marine  Plants. — When  from 
their  quantity  or  remoteness  it  is  inconvenient  to  carry  the 
sea-weed,  which  abounds  on  some  coasts  on  to  the  soil,  it  can 
be  burned ;  when  it  will  be  found  to  yield  a  large  proportion 
of  ash,  which  is  peculiarly  rich  in  soda.  This  is  of  great 
value  to  the  farmer.  Several  species  of  the  fuel  have  for  a 
long  period  been  collected  and  burned  on  the  northern  coasts 
of  Scotland,  Norway  and  the  B:nltic,  forming  an  article  of 
commerce  under  the  name  of  kelp.  Its  value  consisted  in 
its  alkaline  properties,  for  which  it  was  much  used  by  the 
glass  and  soap-makers,  the  bleachers,  and  for  other  uses  in 
the  arts.  For  these  purposes  it  is  now  nearly  superseded 
by  soda  ash,  a  crude  carbonate  of  soda,  extracted   by  the 


MANURES.  85 

decomposition  of  sea-salt ;  and  the  price  it  now  bears  in 
market  will  bring  it  within  the  reach  of  farmers  for  some  of 
the  economical  purposes  of  husbandry. 

Peat  Ashes — Nearly  all  peat  approaching  to  purity, 
when  thrown  out  of  its  bed  and  thoroughly  dried,  will 
admit  of  being  burned  to  an  imperfect  ash;  and  wiien  it 
does  not  reach  this  point  it  will  become  thoroughly  charred 
and  reduced^to  cinders.  In  both  of  these  forms,  it  is  a  valuable 
dressing  for  the  soil.  It  is  always  better  for  dry  uplands  to  use 
the  unburned  peat  at1:er  it  has  been  properly  composted  in  a 
muck  hea}),  as  the  organic  matters  which  it  contains  and 
which  are  (^xpelled  by  burning,  are  of  great  benefit  to  the 
soil.  But  \\  hen  they  are  remote,  the  peat  may  be  burned  at 
a  trifling  cost,  and  the  ashes  carried  to  a  considerable  distance 
with  manifest  profit.  The  principal  use  hitherto  made  of 
them  by  farmers,  has  been  in  spreading  them  directly  over 
the  suiface  of  the  reclaimed  bed  from  which  they  were  taken. 

LIME. 

Lime  is  the  product  of  limestone,  marble,  marl  or  chalk 
after  it  has  been  burned,  or  subjected  to  an  intense  heat. 
In  either  of  the  foregoing  forms  it  is  a  carbonate,  and  con- 
tains from  43  to  46  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  carbonic  acid, 
which  is  expelled  by  calcination.  After  the  acid  has  been 
driven  off  it  exists  in  its  quick  or  caustic  state,  and  in  that 
condition  its  affinity  for  moisture  and  carbon  is  so  great  that 
it  greedily  combines  with  lioth  on  exposure  to  water,  the 
earth,  or  even  to  the  atmosphere;  passing  again  into  a  carbon- 
ate and  hydrate.  It  is  in  these  latter  conditions  that  it  is 
applied  to  soils  and  muck  heaps.  If  reduced  to  powder  (the 
condition  in  which  chalks  and  marls  exist,)  limestone  would 
act  with  equal  efficiency  as  if  burnt. 

Lime  next  to  ashes,  either  as  a  carbonate  or  sulphate,  has 
been  instrumental  in  the  improvement  of  our  soils  beyond  any 
other  saline  manures.  Like  ashes  too,  its  application  is  bene- 
ficial to  every  soil,  not  already  sufficiently  charged  with  it. 
It  makes  heavy  land  lighter,  and  light  land  heavier;  it  gives 
adhesiveness  to  creeping  sands  or  leachy  gravel,  and  com- 
parative openness  and  porosity  to  tenacious  clays;  and  it  has 
a  permanently  beneficial  effect  where  generally  used,  in 
disinfecting  the  atmosphere  of  any  noxious  vapors  existing  in 
it.  It  not  only  condenses  and  retains  the  organic  matters 
brought  into  contact  with  it  by  the  air  and  rains,  but  it  has 
the  farther  eflect  of  converting  the   insoluble  matters  in  the 


86  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

soil,  into  available  food  for  plants.  It  has  proved  in  many 
instances  the  wand  of  Midas,  changing  everything  it  touched 
into  gold.  It  is  the  key  to  the  strong  box  of  the  farmer, 
securely  locking  up  his  treasure  till  demanded  for  his  own  use, 
and  yielding  it  profusely  to  his  demands  whenever  required. 
In  its  influence  in  drying  the  land,  and  accelerating  the  growth 
of  plants,  the  use  of  lime  is  equivalent  to  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature  ;  and  the  farmer  somtimes  experiences,  in  effect,  the 
same  benefit  from  it,  as  if  his  land  were  removed  a  degree 
or  two  to  the  south.  The  influence  of  lime  in  resuscitating 
soils  after  they  have  been  exhausted,  has  been  frequent  and 
striking ;  and  it  may  be  stated  as  an  incontrovertible  truth, 
that  wherever  procurable  at  low  prices,  lime  is  one  of  the 
most  economical  and  efficient  agents  in  securing  fertility 
within  the  farmer's  reach. 

It  has  been  falsely  said  to  be  an  exhauster  of  soils;  that  it 
enriches  the  fathers  and  impoverishes  the  sons.  So  far  as  it 
gives  the  occupant  of  the  land  the  control  over  its  latent 
fertility,  this  is  true,  but  if  lie  squanders  the  rich  products  when 
within  his  reach,  it  will  be  his  own  fault.  Lime  gives  him 
the  power  of  exhausting  his  principal;  if  he  uses  aught  beyond 
the  interest,  his  prodigality  is  chargable  to  his  own  folly,  not 
to  the  liberality  of  his  agent.  By  the  addition  of  lime  to  the 
soil,  the  insoluble  ingredients  contained  in  it  are  set  free,  and 
they  are  thus  enabled  to  aid  in  the  formation  of  plants,  and 
larger  crops  and  of  better  quality  are  the  results.  If  these  be 
taken  from  the  soil,  without  a  corresponding  return  of  ma- 
nure, exhaustion  must  follow.  In  the  proceeding  table  it  is 
seen,  that  lime  constitutes  in  all  cases,  only  a  very  minute 
part  of  the  entire  plant ;  all  the  other  ingredients  must  be 
added  or  the  fertility  of  the  soil  cannot  bo  sustained.  But  in 
the  very  abundance  of  the  crops  which  lime  affords,  means 
are  provided  for  the  inaintainancc  of  the  highest  fcrtilit}'-.  If 
they  are  consumed  on  the  farm  their  manure  should  be 
returned  to  the  fields;  and  if  sold,  other  manures  should  be 
procured  to  replace  the  substances  from  which  they  are  formed. 

A  practice  whieh  has  extensively  prevailed  for  many  years 
in  sections  of  the  eastern  states,  consists  in  alternating  wheat 
and  clover  on  strongly  limed  lands.  The  plan  usually  adopted 
is  fo  give  one  year  to  wheat  and  two  to  clover,  sometimes 
taking  off*  the  first  clover  crop  for  hay,  and  feeding  off  on  the 
ground  and  plowing  in  the  after  growth  for  manure;  and 
upon  this,  wheat  is  again  sown.  This  course  has  succeeded 
in  bringing  into  fine  condition,  many  unprofitable  fields.     It 


afcANtJRES.  87 

may  work  well  for  years,  but  it  is  nevertheless  faulty  and 
improvident.  liime  only  is  added  directly  to  the  soil,  but 
clover  draws  from  the  air  and  moisture  whatever  food  it 
can  attract  from  them.  There  remain  to  be  added  potash, 
soda,  the  phospliates  and  silicates,  which  the  soil  will  soon 
cease  to  furnish  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  wheat  and 
clover  removed,  or  stertility  must  inevitably  follow. 

The  l)est  method,  is  to  add  in  some  form,  tJiefuU  amount  of 
all  the  maicrials^  abstracted  by  the  annual  croj).  When  this 
is  done,  the  large  dressing  of  lime  will  retain  the  accumulating 
fertility,  far  beyond  what  the  soil  would  be  capable  of  were 
it  not  tor  its  agency;  and  it  is  in  this  that  the  great  profit  of 
farming  consists. 

Large  crops  only  are  profitable.  Thejnarket  value  of  many 
indifierent  ones  will  hardly  meet  the  expense  of  cultivation, 
and  it  is  only  the  excess  beyond  this  which  is  profit.  It  is 
evident  that  if  15  bushels  per  acre  of  wheat,  be  an  average 
crop,  and  it  requires  12  bushels  to  pay  all  expenses  of  produc- 
tion, 3  bushels  is  the  amount  of  profit.  But  if  by  the  use  of 
lime  and  ordinary  manures,  the  product  can  be  raised  to  30 
bushels  per  acre,  the  profit  would  be  near  the  value  of  12  or 
15  bushels,  after  paying  for  the  manures.  Thus  the  advan- 
tage from  good  management  may  be  five  times  that  of  neglect. 
This  example  is  given  as  illustrating  a  principle  and  not  as 
an  exact  measure  of  the  diflference  between  limed  and  unlimed 
land. 

Application  of  lime. — It  may  be  carried  on  to  the  ground 
immediately  after  burning  and  placed  in  small  heaps.  There 
it  may  be  lefl  to  slack  by  rains  and  the  air,  or  it  is  better  to 
reduce  it  at  once  with  water  if  accessible,  and  then  spread 
it  preparatory  to  plowing.  A  good  practice  is  to  place  it  in 
large  piles  and  cover  it  thickly  with  earth,  which  gradually 
reduces  it  to  powder.  It  may  then  be  carried  where  it  is 
wanted  and  spread  from  the  cart.  It  is  still  better,  when 
small  quantities  only  are  wanted  to  add  it  to  the  compost  after 
it  has  been  thoroughly  air-slacked,  avoiding  fermentation  as 
far  as  practicable  after  it  has  been  added,  as  its  avidity  for 
carbon  expels  the  ammonia,  which  is  the  most  valuable  of 
the  volatile  ingredients  of  the  muck  heap.  A  thick  coating 
of  earth  over  the  whole,  will  arrest  and  retain  much  of  the 
gas  that  would  otherwise  escape. 

Fresh  burnt  lime  does  not  act  on  the  crops  during  the  first 
year,  and  it  may  be  prepared  for  action  as  well  by  mixing  it 


P8  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

with  3  or  4  times  its  bulk  of  earth,  as  by  spreading  it  directly 
upon  the  ground. 

Magnesian  Lime. — Many  of  the  limestones  contain  mag- 
nesia and  are  called  magnesian  lime.  The  effect  of  this  is 
a  more  energetic  action  and  where  it  is  found  in  lime,  the 
same  result  will  be  produced  l»y  the  application  of  a  less 
quantity.  Oystor  and  all  other  shells  of  marine  origin,  afford 
pure  lime   by  burning. 

Tlw  amoimt  to  he  used  depends  entirely  on  the  soil. 
Some  fertile  lands  contain  over  30  per  cent,  in  their  natural 
state.  800  bushels  of  lime  per  acre,  have  been  applied  at 
one  time  to  heavy  clays  and  such  soils  as  were  full  of  vegetable 
mold,  with  decided  benefit  to  the  land.  In  the  Unhed  States, 
the  average  for  a  first  dressing,  is  from  50  to  120  bushels 
per  acre;  which  may  be  renewed  every  4  or  6  years,  at  the 
rate  of  20  to  40  bushels.  If  an  overdose  has  been  applied, 
time  or  the  addition  of  putrescent  or  green  manures  are  the 
only  correctives. 

To  give  lime  its  fullest  effect,  it  should  be  kept  as  near  the 
surfiice  as  possible;  and  for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  spread  it 
after  plowing,  taking  care  to  harrow  it  well  in.  Allow  it 
then  to  remain  in  grass  as  long  as  possible.  Its  weight  and 
minuteness  give  it  a  tendency  to  sink  and  after  a  few  years 
cultivation,  a  large  proportion  of  it  will  be  found  to  have  got 
beyond  the  depth  of  its  most  efficient  action.  This  circum- 
stance gives  additional  value  to  tlie  system  of  undr^rdraining 
and  subsoil  plowing,  which  enables  the  atmosphere  and  root 
to  follow  it,  thus  prolonging  its  eflect  and  greatly  augmenting 
the  benefit  to  crop.s.  It  should  be  spread  ujion  the  ground 
immediately  after  taking  off  the  last  crop,  so  as  to  allow  all 
the  time  possible  for  its  action  before  the  next  planting 

Applicalio7i  to  Meadows. — In  addition  to  its  other  good 
effects,  lime  like  ashes,  is  useful  to  meadows  in  destroying 
the  mosses  and  decomposing  the  accumulated  vegetable  decay 
on  the  surface.  For  this  purpose  it  may  be  spread  on  them 
unmixed,  after  having  first  passed  into  the  state  of  carbonate 
or  eflete  lime,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  grass.  If  no  such 
necessity  require  its  use  in  this  form,  it  may  be  combined 
advantageously  with  the  muck  and  scattered  broadcast  over 
the  meadow. 

MARLS. 

Marls  are  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  mixed  with  clay, 
sand,  or  loam,  and  frequently  with   sulphate  and  phosphate 


MANITRES  39 

oriime.  They  are  a  useful  application  to  laud  in  consequence 
of  the  lime  they  yield,  and  when  containing  the  phosphate 
in  addition,  their  value  is  largely  increased.  The  quantity 
that  may  be  advantageously  used  is  even  more  variable 
than  that  of  pure  lime,  inasmuch  as  the  quality  varies  with 
every  bed  in  which  it  is  found.  They  are  adapted  to  the 
improvement  of  all  soils,  unless  such  as  arc  already 
sufficiently  filled  with  lime,  and  they  are  more  generally 
useful  to  meadows  than  the  pure  carbonate.  Their  benefits 
will  be  greatly  enhanced  if  the  clay  marl  be  used  on  light  or 
sandy  soils,  and  sandy  marls  on  clay  and  heavy  landa- 
From  20  to  400  cart  loads  of  marl  per  acre  have  been  applied 
according  to  its  quality  and  the  character  of  the  land  to  be 
benefitted.  Circumstances  must  alone  determine  the  proper 
quantity  to  be  used.*  Marl  should  be  carried  out  and 
exposed  in  small  heaps  before  spreading  on  the  land. 
Exposure  to  the  sun  and  especially  to  the  frosts  of  winter,  is 
iiece?siry  to  prepare  it  for  use. 

SHELL  SAND. 

This  is  a  calcareous  sand,  sometimes  mixed  with  animal 
matter.  It  abounds  on  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  Cornwall, 
and  on  the  western  shores  of  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  It  is  also 
found  on  the  coast  of  France,  and  particularly  in  Brittany 
where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  trez.  This  produces 
prodigious  effects  on  peaty,  clay  and  other  soils,  to  which  it  is 
applied  at  the  rate  of  10  to  15  tons  per  acre.  It  is  so  much 
esteemed  for  the  former,  that  it  is  sometfmes  carried  to  a 
distance  of  100  miles.  It  is  probable  there  are  similar 
deposites  on  the  coast  of  some  of  the  Atlantic  States,  though 
we  are  not  aware  of  any  such  application  for  agricultural 
objects.  Its  great  value  as  a  top  dressing,  will  fully  justify 
exploration,  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  it  wherever  it  may 
exist. 


*Marl3  may  be  readily  analyzed  by  any  one  with  a  pair  of  accurate  scales  and 
weights,  and  a  large  mouthed  vial.  To'  one  part  muriatic  acid,  add  2  parts  water 
and  fill  the  vial  to  about  one  third,  and  balance  it  on.the  scales.  Then  slowly 
add  100  grains  of  Uie  pulverized  marl,  tlioroughly  dried  over  the  fire.  When  the 
etfervescence  has  subsided,  expel  tlie  carbonic  acid  from  the  vial,  by  pouring  it  off, 
blowing  into  the  vial  through  a  reed  or  with  a  bellows,  its  greater  weight  causing 
it  to  retain  its  place  to  the  exclusion  of  the  air.  Now  add  weights  to  the  opposite 
scale  till  balanced,  and  the  deficiency  of  grains  under  100,  will  show  the  amount  of 
carbonic  acid  expelled;  and  as  this  is  combined  in  the  proportion  of  46  to  54  of 
quick  or  pure  lime,  in  every  100,  the  loss  indicates  46  per  cent  of  the  carbonate  of 
lime  contained  in  the  marl. 

From  the  frequent  presence  of  phosphate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  and  sometimes 
potash  and  animalized  matters  in  maris,  this  kind  of  analysis  seldom  indicates  the 
value  of  a  marl  bed  for  agricultural  purposes.  If  its  exact  worth  is  to  be  ascertain- 
ed, there  must  be  a  more  perfect  analysis  by  an  experienced  chemist. 


40  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


GREEN  SAND  MARL. 
There  are  extensive  beds  of  a  green  sand  (generally 
though  improperly  termed)  marl,  which  run  through  a  section 
of  New-Jersey,  from  which  farmers  have  derived  an  aston- 
ishing addition  to  their  crops.  It  is  found  by  analysis  to 
contain  but  a  small  quantity  of  lime,  but  it  readily  yields  a 
large  amount  of  potash,  varying  from  6  to  15  per  cent. 
From  a  careful  analysis  of  eight  different  specimens,  Prof. 
Rodgers  found  in  it  an  average  of  10  per  cent,  of  potassa. 
The  effect  of  this  applied  to  the  barren  sands  which  abound 
in  that  neighborhood,  has  been  so  favorable,  that  lands  which 
before  could  be  bought  for  $S  per  acre,  would  afterwards 
bring  $40.  Several  deposits  of  green  sand  in  the  counties 
of  Plymouth  and  Barnstable,  Mass.,  similar  in  external 
appearance  to  the  foregoing,  were  explored  by  Prof.  Hitch- 
cock, and  specimens  were  analyzed  by  Dr.  Dana,  without 
however,  detecting  any  qualities  of  decided  advantage  to 
agriculture. 

GYPSUM— PLASTER  OF  PARIS-OR  SULPHATE  OF  LIME. 

This  is  a  combination  of  lime  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
water  in  the  proportion  of  28  of  lime,  40  of  acid,  and  18  of 
water.  It  is  frequently  found  in  connexion  with  carbonate 
of  lime,  clay  dec.  The  use  of  gypsum  has  been  attended 
with  great  benefit  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  ;  and 
by  many  of  the  most  experienced  farmers,  is  justly  consid- 
ered as  indispensable  to  good  farming.  Like  all  saline,  and 
indeed  all  other  manures,  it  acts  beneficially  only  on  soils 
which  are  free  from  standing  water,  or  which  may  be  satu- 
rated with  it.  It  is  felt  most  on  sandy,  loamy,  and  generally 
on  clay  soils,  requiring  more  for  the  latter,  and  for  all  such 
as  contain  a  large  proportion  of  vegetable  matter.  From 
two  pecks  on  sandy,  to  fifteen  bushels  on  clay  soil  have 
been  applied  per  acre;  but  from  two  to  four  bushels  is  the 
usual  quantity. 

The  crops  on  which  it  produces  the  greatest  effect  are  the 
red  and  white  clover,  lucern  and  sainfoin,  and  the  legumi-    ^ 
nous  plants,   peas,   beans,  &c.      On  natural  meadows  and 
the  cereal  grains,  it  has  no  perceptible  influence. 

It  should  be  sown  broadcast  as  soon  as  the  leaves  have 
expanded  in  the  spring.  It  takes  460  times  its  weight  of 
water  to  dissolve  it,  which  shows  the  necessity  of  applying  it 
while  the  early  rains  are  abundant,  and  the  increased  effect  * 


MANURES.  41 

ol' sowing  it  on  the  leaves,  requires  that  ils  application  should 
be  deferred  till  they  have  become  partially  developed.  For 
corn,  potatoes,  lurnep.s,  t!^c.,  it  is  usually  put  in  with  the 
seed,  or  sprinkled  upon  them  alter  the  first  hoeing. 

From  its  great  effect  on  the  clovers,  increasing  them 
sometimes  to  twice,  and  in  rare  instances,  to  thrice  the  qan- 
tity  produced  without  it,  it  is  manifest  that  it  is  the  most 
profitable  manure  which  can  be  used,  as  it  can  be  generally 
procured  by  farmers  at  from  #3  to  $6  per  ton.  Yet  it  should 
be  fully  understood,  that  like  lime  and  ashes,  it  furnishes 
only  a  part  of  the  food  of  plants  ;  and  like  them  too,  the 
addition  of  vegetable  and  animal  manures  is  indispensable 
to  secure  permanent  fertility. 

Extensive  sections  of  this  and  other  countries,  particularly 
in  Great  Britain,  apparently  derive  no  benefit  from  the  appli- 
cation of  gypsum.  This  fiiilure  has  been  variously  ascribed 
to  there  being  already  enough  in  the  soil ;  or  to  the  presence 
of  a  marine  atmosphere.  Its  great  usefulness  however,  on 
many  parts  of  our  Atlantic  coast,  would  seem  to  require 
some  other  explanation  than  the  last  as  the  cause  of  its 
inefficiency.  Experiment  alone  can  determine  the  circum- 
stances which  will  justify  its  application,  and  to  this  test 
should  not  only  this,  but  all  other  practices  of  the  farmer  be 
rigidly  subjected. 

BONES. 

About  33  per  cent,  of  fresh  bone,  consists  of  animal  mat- 
ter, (oil,  gelatine,  &:c;)  from  53  to  56  per  cent,  of  phosphate 
of  lime  and  the  remainder  is  principally  carbonate  of  lime, 
soda  and  magnesia.  There  is  no  part  of  the  bone  that  is 
not  useful  to  vegetation  ;  it  is  especially  so  to  the  various 
kinds  of  grain,  to  potatoes,  turneps,  the  clovers,  peas  and 
beans.  The  bones  should  be  crushed  or  ground,  and  then 
drilled  in  with  the  seed,  or  scattered  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of 
25  bushels  per  acre.  They  may  l>e  repeated  in  less  quanti- 
ties every  4  or  5  years,  or  till  the  soil  ceases  to  be  improved 
by  them,  when  they  should  be  withheld  till  additional  crop^ 
ping  shall  have  so  far  exhausted  them  as  to  justify  a  further 
supply. 

Bones  are  generally  boiled  before  using  for  manure  to 
extract  the  oil  and  glue.  This  does  not  lessen  their  value 
for  agricultural  purposes,  beyond  the  diminution  of  their 
weight,  while  it  hastens  their  action.  They  are  sometimes 
burned,  which  drives  off  all  the  organic  matter,  leaving  only 


42  AMERICAN   AGRICULTUBE. 

the  lime,  &c.,  to  benefit  the  soil.  This  is  a  wasteful  practice, 
though  the  efiect  is  more  immediate  on  the  crops;  but  it  is 
also  more  transient,  and  they  require  to  be  more  frequently 
renewed.  Bones  ought  always  to  be  saved ;  and  if  not  prac- 
ticable to  crush  them,  they  may  be  thrown  upon  the  land, 
where  they  will  gradually  corrode  and  impart  their  fertilizing 
properties.  When  partially  decomposed  and  buried  just 
beneath  the  surface,  the  roots  of  the  luxuriant  plants  above, 
will  twine  around  them  in  all  directions  to  suck  out  the  rich 
food  which  ministers  so  freely  to  their  growth.  Crushed 
bones  are  advantageously  used  with  nearly  an  equal  amount 
of  ashes,  or  with  one  third  their  weight  of  gypsum  ;  or,  as 
with  nearly  all  other  saline  manures,  they  may  be  added  to 
the  muck  heap. 

PHOSPHATE  OF   LIME. 

This  exists  in  a  fossil  state,  and  is  known  in  some  of  its 
forms  as  apatite,  pJiosphorite,  &c.  An  extensive  quarry  is 
found  in  Estramadura,  in  Spain,  and  smaller  deposites  of  it 
have  been  discovered  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States, 
under  a  variety  of  names.  It  is  probable  it  may  yet  be  found 
in  such  localities  and  in  such  quantity  as  to  be  useful  to  the 
farmer.  It  has  been  shown  that  more  than  half  of  the  whole 
weight  of  bones  consists  of  pure  phosphate  of  lime;  its  value 
therefore  is  apparent. 

SALT -OR  CHLORIDE  OF  SODIUM 

Is  variously  obtained,  as  fossil  or  rock  salt ;  from  boiling 
or  evaporation  of  salt  springs ;  and  from  the  waters  of  the 
ocean.  In  a  pure  state  it  consists  of  60  of  chlorine  and  40 
of  sodium,  in  every  100  parts.  Sodium  chemically  combined 
with  oxygen  forms  soda*;  and  it  will  be  seen  by  referring 
to  the  table,  page  32,  that  salt  furnishes  two  of  the  important 
constituents  in  the  ash  of  every  vegetable.  Its  advantage  to 
vegetation  are  to  be  inferred  from  a  knowledge  of  its  compo- 
sition, which  is  fully  sustained  by  experience.  As  a  manure, 
salt  was  extensively  used  by  the  ancients,  and  has  ever  since 
been  employed  by  intelligent  agriculturists.  On  some  soils 
it  yields  no  apparent  benefit.  Such  as  are  near  the  sea-coast 
and  occasionally  receive  deposites  from  the  salt  spray,  which 
js  often  carried  far  inland  by  the  ocean  storms ;  or  such  as 
contain  chlorine  and  soda  in  any  other  forms,  are  not  affected 
by  it.  But  in  other  situations,  when  used  at  the  rate  of  3  to 
16  bushels  per  acre,  the  crops  of  grains,  roots  or  grasses  have 


MANURES.  48 

been  increased  from  20  to  50  per  cent.  It  may  be  applied 
in  minute  portions  in  the  hill,  or  scattered  broadcast,  or 
mixed  with  the  muck  heap.  Its  great  atftnity  for  water  has 
the  eflect,  like  that  of  gypsum,  of  attracting  dews  and  atmos. 
pheric  vapor  to  the  growing  vegetation,  by  which  it  is  supplied 
with  moisture  in  a  period  of  drought  much  beyond  what  is 
conveyed  to  such  as  are  destitute  of  these  manures.  Salt  is 
also  useful  in  destroying  slugs,  worms,  and  larvae  which 
frequently  do  much  injury  to  the  crops. 

SULPHATE  OF  SODA,  ^Glauber  Salts,)  SULPHATE  OF  MAG- 
NESIA, {Epsom  Salts,)  AND  SULPHATE  OF  POTASH. 

These  are  all  useful  manures,  and  they  act  on  vegetation 
in  a  manner  similar  to  gypsum.  This  was  to  have  been  ex- 
pected so  far  as  the  sulphuric  acid  is  concerned,  which  is 
common  to  each  ;  but  their  action  is  modified  to  a  certain 
degree  by  the  influence  af  the  base  or  alkaline  ingredients 
on  the  plants.  The  generally  increased  priie  which  they 
bear  over  gypsum,  will  prevent  their  use  away  from  those 
localities,  where  they  exist  in  a  state  of  nature,  or  where 
they  may  be  procured  at  low  rates,  near  the  laboratories  in 
which  they  are  manufactured. 

NITRATE    OF    POTASH,    (Saltpetre,)   AND    NITRATE    OF 
SODA. 

These  are  both  found  in  a  crude  state  in  native  beds,  or 
as  an  efflorescence ;  and  in  this  condition  they  can  fre. 
quently  be  bought  at  a  price  which  will  justify  their  use. 
The  first  contains  potash  46 i,  and  nitric  acid  53  J  ;  the 
second,  in  its  dry  state,  soda  36i,  and  nitric  acid  63i,  in  every 
100  parts.  Numerous  experiments  have  been  tried  with 
them  on  various  crops ;  but  they  have  not  thus  far,  afforded 
very  accurate  or  satisfactory  results.  In  general,  they  give 
a  darker  color  and  more  rapid  growth,  and  they  increase 
the  weight  of  clover,  grass  and  the  straw  of  grain  ;  and  the 
former  are  more  relished  by  cattle.  But  in  the  average 
effects  upon  grain  and  roots,  the  statements  are  too  much  at 
variance  to  deduce  any  well  settled  principles.* 

As  a  soak  or  steep  for  seeds^  and  especially  when  dis- 
solved and  added  to  the  bed  where  they  are  planted,  there 
is  no  doubt  of  their  great  value  in  giving  an  early  and  vi- 

*  From  the  decidedly  beneficial  effects,  produced  in  numerous  instances,  may 
we  not  reasonably  infer,  that  they  have  generally  been  successful,  where  there  has 
been  a  deficiency  of  tbem  in  the  soil  ? 


44  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUHE. 

gorous  start  to  vegetables.  This  enables  them  rapidly  to 
push  forward  their  roots,  stems  and  leaves,  thus  obtaining  a 
greater  range  for  the  roots  and  more  mouths  for  the  leaves 
to  draw  their  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere. 

CARBONATES,    NITRATES,  SULPHATES,  PFIOSPHATES, 
SILICATES,  AND  CHLORIDES. 

Several  of  these  have  just  been  particularly  enumerated. 
The  remainder  are  composed  of  carbonic,  nitric,  sulphuric 
and  phosphoric  acids,  silica  and  chlorine,  in  chemical  com- 
bination with  potash,  soda,  lime  and  the  other  bases  of 
plants.  Although  no  one  of  these  can  fail  to  benefit  crops, 
when  rightly  applied,  yet  the  expense  of  most  of  them  will 
prevent  their  extended  use.  This  can  only  be  looked  for 
from  those  which  are  procurable  at  a  cheap  rate.  The  che- 
mical laboratories,  glass  works  and  some  other  manufacto- 
ries, afford  in  their  refuse  materials,  more  or  less  of  these 
mineral  manures,  which  would  well  repay  the  farmer  for 
removing  and  applying  to  his  land.  The  most  obvious  that 
occur  in  this  country,  are  all  that  will  be  here  mentioned. 

OLD    PLASTER. 

This  is  a  trve  silicate  of  lime,  being  formed  mostly  of  sili- 
ceous sand  and  lime,  chemically  coml3ined.  For  meadows, 
and  for  most  other  crops,  especially  on  clays  and  loams,  this 
is  worth  twice  its  weight  in  hay  ;  as  it  will  produce  a  large 
growth  of  grass  for  years  in  succession,  without  other  ina- 
nure.  This  eflect  is  due  not  only  to  the  lime  and  sand,  but  to 
the  nitric  acid  which  they  have  abstracted  from  the  atmos- 
phere, and  which  they  continue  alternately  (while  in  com- 
bination) to  absorb  from  the  air  and  give  out  to  the  growing 
plant.  But  the  farmer  cannot  too  carefully  remember,  that 
with  this,  as  m  ith  all  other  saline  manures,  but  a  part  of  the 
ingredients  only  is  thus  supplied  to  vegetables ;  and  without 
the  addition  of  llie  others,  the  soil  will  sooner  or  later  become 
exhausted. 

BROKEN  BRICK  AND  BURNT  CLAY. 

These  are  composed  mostly  of  silicate  of  alumina,  generally 
mixed  with  silicate  of  potash  and  other  substances.  They 
are  of  much  value  as  a  top-dressing  for  meadows.  In  addition 
to  their  furnishing  in  themselves  a  minute  quantity  of  the 
food  of  plants,  like  old  plaster,  they  serve  a  much  more  ex- 


MANURES.  45 

tended  purpose,  by  condensing  ammonia  nitric  acid  and  the 
gases  of  the  atmosphere, 

CHARCOAL, 

Scattered  over  the  ground,  produces  the  same  effect  as  the 
foregoing,  and  probably  in  a  greater  degree  ;  as  it  absorbs 
and  condenses  tlie  nutritive  gases  within  its  pores,  to  the 
amount  of  from  20  to  over  80  times  its  own  bulk.  The  eco- 
nomy and  benefit  of  such  applications  can  be  readily  under- 
stood, as  they  are  continually  gleaning  these  floating  materi- 
als from  the  air,  and  storing  them  up  as  food  for  j^lants. 
Charcoal  as  well  as  lime,  often  checks  rust  in  wheat,  and 
mildew  in  other  crops  ;  and  in  all  cases  mitigates  their  rava- 
ges, where  it  does  not  wholly  prevent  thenj. 

BROKEN   GLASS 

Is  a  silicate  of  potash  or  soda,  according  as  either  of  these 
alkalies  are  used,  in  its  manufactures.  Silicate  of  potash, 
(silex  and  potash  chemically  united,)  is  that  material  in 
plants,  which  constitutes  the  flinty,  outer  coating  of  the 
grasses,  straw,  cornstalks,  &c. ;  and  it  is  found  in  varying 
quantity  in  all  plants.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the  cane, 
Indian  corn,  the  stings  of  nettles,  and  the  prickly  spikes  in 
burs  and  thistles.  Some  species  of  the  marsh-grasses  have 
these  silicates  so  finely  yet  firmly  adjusted,  like  saw-teeth  on 
their  sharp  edges,  as  to  cut  the  flesh  to  the  bone  when  drawn 
across  the  finger.  Every  farmer's  boy  has  experienced  a  yet 
more  formidable  weapon  in  the  exterior  of  a  cornstalk. 

It  is  to  the  absence  of  this  material  in  peat  and  such  other 
soils  as  have  an  undue  proportion  of  animal  or  vegetable  ma* 
nures,  that  we  may  attribute  the  imperfect  maturity  of  the 
grain  and  cultivated  grasses  grown  upon  them,  causing  them 
to  crinkle  and  fall  from  the  want  of  adequate  support  to  the 
stem  ;  and  it  is  to  their  presence  in  excess  in  sandy  and  cal- 
careous soils,  that  the  straw  is  always  firm  and  upright, 
whatever  may  be  the  weight  of  the  bending  ear  at  the  top. 
By  a  deficiency  of  silicates,  we  mean,  that  they  do  not  exist 
in  a  soluble  form,  which  is  the  only  state  in  which  plants  can 
seize  upon  and  appropriate  them.  The  efforts  of  the  roots  in 
procuring  this  indispensable  food  are  so  irresistible,  that  they 
have  been  known  to  decompose  glass  vessels  in  which  they 
have  been  grown.  Before  using,  the  glass  should  be  redu- 
ced to  powder  by  grinding. 


46  AMERICAN    AGHICtTlTtlRE. 

CRUSHED  MICA,  FELDSPAR,  LAVA,  THE  TRAP  ROCKS,  &c. 

Feldspar  coniSLins  66.75  of  silica;  17.50  alumina;  12  potash; 
1.25  lime  ;  and  0.75  oxide  of  iron.  Mica  consists  of  silica, 
46.22 ;  alumina,  34.52 ;  peroxide  of  iron,  6,04  ;  potash, 
8.22;  magnesia  and  manganese,  2.11.  Most  of  the  lavas  a.nd 
trap-rocks  hold  large  quantities  of  potash,  lime,  and  other 
fertilizing  ingredients.  The  last  frequently  form  the  entire 
soils  in  volcanic  countries,  as  in  Sicily,  and  around  Mount 
Vesuvius  in  Italy,  in  the  Azores  and  Sandwich  Islands  ;  and 
their  value  for  grains  and  all  cultivated  plants  is  seen  in  the 
luxuriance  of  their  crops  and  the  durability  of  their  soils. 
These  examples  illustrate  the  great  influence  of  saline  ma- 
nures, and  their  near  approach  to  an  entire  independence  in 
sustaining  vegetation.  Whenever  they  become  exhausted  by 
the  severe  usage  they  undergo,  two  or  three  years  of  rest  ena- 
bles them  again  to  yield  a  remunerating  crop  to  the  improvi- 
dent  husbandman.  Granite^  sienite,  and  some  other  rockSf 
yielding  large  proportions  of  potash  and  some  lime,  abound 
throughout  the  eastern  portion  of  this  country.  The  potash 
in  them  is  however  firmly  held  in  an  insoluble  state  ;  but  if  it 
be  subjected  to  a  strong  heat,  it  may  afterwards  be  crushed, 
and  then  yield  it  in  an  easily  soluble  form,  and  constitute  a 
valuable  top-dressing  for  lands. 

It  is  a  subject  of  frequent  remark,  that  the  soil  underneath, 
or  in  immediate  contact  with  some  stone  walls,  which  have 
been  erected  for  a  long  period*,  is  much  richer  than  the  adjoin- 
ing parts  of  the  same  fields.  This  difference  is  probably 
due,  in  some  measure  to  the  slow  decomposition  of  important 
fertilisers  in  the  stone,  which  are  washed  down  by  the  rains 
and  become  incorporated  in  the  soil.  The  removal  of  stones 
from  a  fertile  field,  has  been  deprecated  by  many  an  obser- 
ving farmer,  as  materially  impairing  its  productiveness.  Be- 
yond the  shade  thus  aflforded  against  an  intense  sun,  protection 
from  cold  winds,  their  influence  in  condensing  moisture, 
(and  the  beneficial  eflfects  which  perhaps  ensue  as  injibrous  cov- 
ering,) the  diflference  may  be  attributable  to  the  same  cause. 

SPENT  LYE  OF  THE  ASHERIES 
Is  the  liquid  which  remains  after  the  combination  of  the 
lye  and  grease  in  manufacturing  soap.  It  is  of  great  value 
for  plants.  Before  its  application  to  the  land  it  should  be 
mixed  with  peat  or  turf,  or  diluted  with  ten  times  its  bulk  of 
water.     Five  gallons  of  this  lye  is  estimated  to  contain  as 


MANURES.  47 


much  potash  or  soda,  according  as  either  is  used,  as  would  be 
furnished  by  three  barrels  of  ashes.  It  has  besides,  a  large 
quantity  of  nitrogen,  the  most  valuable  ingredient  o(  animal 
manure,  which  by  judicious  application,  is  either  converted 
into  ammonia,  or  serves  the  same  purpose  in  yielding  nutri- 
tion to  plants. 


AMMONIACAL  LIQUOR  (from  the  gas- houses). 

This  liquid  is  the  residuum  of  bituminous  coal  and  tar  usetJ 
in  making  gas,  and  holds  large  quantities  of  nitrogen,  from? 
which  ammonia  is  frequently  extracted.  When  used  for  land 
near  by,  it  may  be  carried  to  the  muck -heap  in  barrels  ;  and 
when  at  remote  distances,  gypsum  or  charcoal  dust  may  be 
added  to  the  barrel,  stirring  it  well  for  some  time,  and  then 
closely  covering  it.  The  gypsum  and  charcoal  soon  combine 
with  the  ammonia,  when  the  liquid  may  be  drawn  off,  and  the 
solid  contents  removed.  It  is  a  powerful  manure,  and  should 
be  sparingly  used. 


GUANO 

Is  derived  exclusively  from  the  animal  creation,  but  from 
its  existence  in  a  highly  condensed  state,  and  in  combination 
with  large  proportions  of  the  salts,  and  having  by  its  accu- 
mulation through  thousands  of  years  lost  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  recent  animal  matter,  it  may  almost  be  con- 
sidered as  a  fossil,  and  is  properly  enough  classed  under  the 
head  of  inorganic  manures.  It  is  the  remains  of  the  dung, 
feathers,  eggs,  food  and  carcasses  of  innumerable  flocks  of 
marine  birds,  which  have  made  some  of  the  islands  in  the* 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans,  places  of  resort  for  rearing  their 
young  through  unknown  ages.  It  is  found  in  the  Pacific^ 
near  the  coast  of  Peru,  between  latitude  13°  and  21°  south ,^ 
where  the  rain  never  falls;  and  in  some  places  it  has  accumu- 
lated  to  the  enormous  height  of  60  and  80  feet.  Yet  such  has 
been  the  demand  for  this  justly  popular  fertilizer^  that  over 
373,000  tons  were  imported  into  England  fiom  July  1844,  to 
the  same  period  in  1845,  at  an  average  value  of  $33  per  torr. 
A  comparatively  small  amount  has  been  taken  to  other  coun- 
tries, including  the  United  States.  Its  value  has  been  known 
and  appreciated  from  time  immemorial  by  the  Peruvians,  who; 
transferred  it  <;o  the  continent,  and  used  it  for  various  crops^ 


48  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Different  specimens  vary  greatly  as  to  quality.  The 
average  analysis  of  Dr.  lire's  examinations  is  : 

Organic  matter  containing  nitrogen,  including  urate 
of  ammonia,  and  capable  of  affording  from  8  to  17  per 
cent,  of  ammonia  by  slow  change  in  the  soil, 50 

Water  11.     Phosphate  of  lime  25, 36 

Ammonia,  phosphate  of  magnesia,  phosphate  of  am- 
monia and  oxalate  of  ammonia,  containing  from  4  to  9 
per  cent,  of  ammonia, 13 

Silicious  matter  from  the  crops  of  birds, 1 

100 

The  above  analysis  shows  a  strongly  concentrated  manure, 
and  it  is  certain  it  is  much  above  the  medium,  as  the  sand 
alone  is  sometimes  15  or  20  per  cent.  It  is  applied  to  roots, 
grain  and  other  cultivated  crops,  and  as  a  top  dressing  for 
grass;  but  it  has  thus  far  proved  of  most  value  to  the  former. 
Before  using  it  as  a  top  dressing,  it  is  mixed  with  twice  its 
bulk  of  fine  earth,  ashes,  plaster  or  charcoal  dust.  The 
proper  quantity  is  from  200  to  400  lbs.  per  acre,  sown 
broadcast  and  harrowed  in,  or  supplied  in  two  dressings;  the 
first  soon  after  the  plants  appear,  but  not  in  contact  with 
them  ;  the  last,  10  or  14  days  after,  and  immediately  before 
moist  or  wet  weather.  The  crops  on  poor  soils  are  much 
improved,  while  those  on  rich  lands,  have  in  some  cases, 
been  injured  by  it.  For  hot  houses  and  many  minor  pur- 
poses it  is  a  desirable  manure,  and  in  solution  it  is  very 
convenient  as  an  occasional  dressing.  It  is  thus  prepared 
by  dissolving  4  lbs.  in  12  gallons  of  water,  24  hours  before 
using.  On  account  of  its  volatile  character,  it  should  be 
closely  covered  till  wanted. 

SOOT, 

Like  ashes,  has  its  origin  exclusively  from  vegetables, 
but  may  with  them,  be  properly  treated  under  the  present 
head.  It  holds  ammonia,  charcoal  and  other  rich  ingredi- 
ents, and  is  used  at  the  rate  of  50  to  :J00  bushels  per  acre. 
It  produces  its  greatest  eflects  in  moist  weather,  and  in  dry 
seasons,  it  has  sometimes  proved  positively  injurious.  It 
may  be  sown  broadcast  over  ihe  field  and  harrowed  in,  or 
mixed  with  such  other  manures  as  are  intended  for  immedi- 
ate use.  The  ammonia  has  a  great  tendency  to  escape, 
which  can  only  be  prevented,  by  adequate  absorbents,  as 


3I4NUBES.  49 

earth  or  the  like.  Many  experiments  made  with  it  have 
proved  contradictory.  In  some,  it  has  been  shown  to  be 
useless  tor  clovers,  while  it  has  proved  of  great  service  to 
several  of  the  grasses.  Salt  enhances  its  effects.  In  an 
experiment  made  in  England  with  potatoes,  on  three  sepa- 
rate acres  of  land  of  equal  quality  one  without  manure, 
gave  160  bushels  ;  one  manured  with  30  bushels  of  soot, 
yielded  19G  ;  and  the  third,  which  received  the  same  quan- 
tity of  soot  and  seven  bushels  of  salt,  yielded  236. 


50  AIVIEEICAN     AGEICULTUEE, 


CHAPTER   IIL 


O  RG  AN  IC    M  A  N  U  RES. 

THE  PRIiNClPLES  CONSTITUTING  ANIMAL  AND  VEGE- 
TABLE—PUTRESCENT  OR  ORGANIC  MANURES. 

From  the  table  in  the  tbregoiiig  pages  on  the  ashes  of 
plants,  to  which  reference  has  been  frequently  made,  it  is 
shown  that  in  burning  dried  vegetables,  they  lose  from 
about  95  to  99  per  cent,  of  their  whole  weight.  The  mat- 
ter that  has  been  expelled  by  heat,  consists  of  four  substan- 
ces or  ultimate  principles ;  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen,  of  which  carbon  makes  up  t>om  40  to  50  per  cent, 
or  about  one  half  of  the  whole. 

Carbon  constitutes  all  of  charcoal  but  the  ash ;  nearly 
all  of  mineral  coal,  and  plumbago  or  black  lead  ;  and  even 
the  brilliant  diamond  is  but  another  form  of  carbon.  The 
properties  and  uses  of  carbon  are  various  and  important ; 
its  agency  in  the  growth  of  plants  alone  concerns  us  at  the 
present  time. 

Carbonic  Acid. — When  any  matter  containing  carbon  is 
burnt,  its  minute  particles  or  atoms  combine  with  the 
oxygen  which  exists  in  the  atmosphere,  and  form  carbonic 
acid,  consisting  by  weight  of  6  of  the  former  and  16  of  the 
latter.  When  animals  inhale  air  into  their  lungs  a  similar 
union  takes  place  ;  the  carbon  contained  in  the  system  being 
brought  to  the  surface  of  the  lungs,  and  after  uniting  with 
the  oxygen  as  carbonic  acid,  is  expelled.  Pure  lime- 
stone or  marble  loses  46  per  cent,  of  its  weight  by  burning; 
and  all  of  this  loss  is  carbonic  acid,  which  it  slowly  absorbs 
again  on  exposure  to  the  air,  or  to  such  substances  as  con- 
tain it.  It  is  evolved  by  fermentation,  and  if  the  surface  of 
a  brewer's  vat  in  full  activity  be  closely  observed  in  a  clear 
light,  it  may  be  seen  falling  over  the  edges,  when  it  gradu- 
ally mingles  with  the  air.     Its  density  is  such  that  it  may  bo 


ORGANIC   MANURES.  51 

poured  from  one  open  vessel  into  another,  without  material 
loss.  It  is  this  which  gives  to  artificial  soda  water  and  to 
mineral  springs  (as  the  Saratoga)  their  sparkling  appearance 
and  acid  flavor,  ft  abounds  in  certain  caves,  sunken  pits, 
and  wells,  which  destroy  animal  life,  not  from  any  intrinsic 
poisonous  qualities,  but  from  its  excluding  oxygen,  which  is 
essential  to  respiration.  And  it  is  from  the  same  cause, 
tlmt  death  ensues  to  such  as  are  confined  in  a  close  room 
where  charcoal  is  burnt. 

This  acid  is  an  active  and  important  agent  in  the  inces- 
snut  changes  of  nature.  It  is  everywhere  formed  in  vast 
quantities,  by  subterranean  fires  and  volcanoes.  Though 
lienvier  than  atmospheric  air,  it  uu'ngles  with  it  and  is  car- 
ried as  high  as  examinations  have  yet  been  made,  consti- 
tuting in  bulk,  about  one  part  in  1000  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  something  more  than  this  in  weight.  Gay  Lussac 
ascended  in  a  balloon  21,735  feet,  and  there  filled- a  bottle 
with  air,  which  analysis  showed  to  be  identical  in  composi- 
tion witlj  that  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Carbon  is  one  of 
the  great  principles  of  vegetation,  and  it  is  only  as  carbonic 
acid,  that  it  is  absorbed  by  the  roots,  leaves  and  stems  of 
vegetables,  and  by  them  is  condensed  and  retained  as  solid 
matter. 

OxYGKN,  hyilrogen  and  nitrogen,  when  uncombined  with 
other  substances,  exist  only  as  gases.  The  first  makes  up 
nearly  one  half  of  all  the  substances  of  the  globe;  and  with 
the  exception  of  chlorine  and  iodine,  it  constitutes  a  large 
part  of  every  material  in  the  ash  of  plants.  It  forms  rather 
over  21  per  cent,  by  measure,  and  23  by  weight  of  the  whole 
atmosphere  ;  and  about  8  parts  out  of  nine  by  weight  of 
water,  hydrogen  making  up  the  remainder.  It  is  absorbed 
and  changed  into  new  products  by  the  respiration  of  ani- 
juals,  and  it  is  an  essential  agent  in  combustion.  Oxides 
are  composed  of  it  in  union  with  the  metals,  alkalies,  &c.  : 
and  most  of  the  acids,  as  when  combined  with  other  substan^ 
ces,  nitrogen,  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  Its  presence  indeed, 
is  almost  universal;  and  the  agency  which  it  exerts  in  vegeta- 
ble nutrition,  is  among  the  most  varied  and  intricate  mani- 
fested in  vegetable  life. 

Hydrogen  is  the  lightest  of  all  the  gasos.^  It  is  but  l-14th 
the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and  l-16th  the  weight  of  oxy- 
gen ;  and  from  its  great  levity,  it  is  used  for  filling  balloons. 
It  burns  with  a  light  flame  when  brought  into  contact  with 


52  A3fEHICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

atmospheric  air  on  applying  a  liglited  taper,  the  combustion 
forming  water. 

It  is  largely  evolved  from  certain  springs,  in  connexion 
with  carbon  or  sulphur,  and  is  called  carburetted  and  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  an  offensively  pungent  and  inflauiina- 
ble  gas.  So  abundantly  is  this  emitted  from  the  earth  in 
some  places,  that  it  is  used  for  economical  purposes.  The 
inhabitants  about  the  village  of  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  liglit  their 
buildings  with  it ;  and  some  of  the  salt  manufacturers  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  apply  it  to  evaporating  the  water  of 
the  saline  springs.  Carburetted  hydrogen  is  the  gas 
now  employed  for  lighting  cities.  It  is  manufactured  from 
oils,  fa!,  tar,  rosin  and  bituminous  coal,  all  of  which  yield 
large  quantities  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  Both  the  carbon 
and  hydrogen  are  entirely  consumed  with  a  brilliant  liglit, 
when  Inflamed  and  exposed  to  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere. 
It  is  the  residuum  of  these  substances,  after  driving  off  the 
gas,  which  makes  the  ammoniacal  liquor  so  useful  as  a 
manure  ;  all  the  nitrogen  with  a  part  of  the  hydrogen 
remaining.  In  combination  with  chlorine,  one  of  the  ele- 
ments of  salt,  it  constitutes  the  muriatic,  one  of  the  strongest 
of  the  acids. 

Ammonia. — The  most  frequent  condition  besides  water  in 
which  hydrogen  is  mentioned  in  connexion  with  vegetation, 
is  when  combined  with  nitrogen  in  the  proportion  of  3  of  the 
former  in  bulk,  to  1  of  the  latter;  and  by  weight,  17.47  of 
the  first,  to  82.53  of  the  last,  in  every  100  parts,  composing 
the  volatile  alkali,  ammonia,  which  is  about  6-lOths  the  den- 
sity of  the  atmosphere.  By  strong  compression  at  a  low 
temperature,  it  may  be  condensed  to  a  liquid  having  rathcY 
more  than  3-4ths  the  specific  weight  of  watrr.  It  is  never 
found  in  a  tangible  shape,  except  in  combination  with  acids, 
forming  carbonates,  nitrates,  sulphates,  muriates,  (S:c.  of 
ammonia. 

Nitrogen  exists  in  the  atmosphere  to  the  extent  of  about 
79  per  cent.  The  principal  purpose  it  appears  to  fuliil  in 
this  connexion,  is  in  diluting  the  oxygen,  which  in  its  pure 
state  acts  with  too  great  intensity  on  animal  life,  in  com- 
hustion,  and  all  its  various  combinations.  So  great  is  the 
attraction  of  undiluted  oxygen  for  iron,  (hat  a  wire  ignited 
by  a  taper  and  plunged  into  a  jar  of  oxygen  gas,  will  itself 
lake  fire  and  rapidly  melt  into  irregular  drops.  This  is 
nothing  mor«  than  an  illustration  of  the  principle  exhibited 

f 


OROANIC    MANURES.  53 

(iji  an  intense  degree)  in  the  gradual  rusting  which  takes 
phicc  in  tlie  air  at  Its  ordinary  temperature  ;  or  the  more 
rapid  t'ormation  ot*  the  seales  under  tlie  heat  of  the  black- 
smith's Ibrge.  Ail  are  simple  oxidations  of  the  metal,  or  the 
combination  of  oxygen  with  iron ;  and  we  sec  in  the  com- 
parison, the  immensely  accelerated  eflect  produced  by  the 
absence  of  nitrogen. 

Nitric  acid  is  another  compound  of  great  importance  to 
vegetation.  It  is  simply  nitrogen  and  oxygen  ;  the  identical 
materials  which  compose  the  atmosphere,  combined  in  differ- 
ent proportions,  '26. 15  parts  by  weight  of  the  former,  and 
73.85  of  the  latter  in  every  100.  This  acid  in  union  with 
j)otash,  forms  nitrate  of  potash,  or  saltpetre ;  and  with  soda 
forms  nitrate  of  soda.  The  last  is  found  in  immense  beds  and  lies 
upon  and  immediately  under  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  Chili, 
India  and  Spain.  From  Chili  it  is  exported  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and  has  been  extensively  used  in  England  of  late  years, 
us  a  manure. 

It  has  been  deemed  relevant  to  our  subject  to  say  thus  much 
respecting  some  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  those 
four  simple  principles,  which  make  up  an  average  of  more 
than  98  per  cent,  of  all  living  vegetables.  And  he;*e  a  mo- 
ment's reflection  irresistibly  forces  from  us  an  expression  of 
wonder  and  admiration  at  that  Wisdom  and  Omnipotence, 
which,  out  of  such  limited  means,  has  wrought  such  varied 
and  beautiful  results.  Every  plant  that  exists,  from  the 
obscure  sea-weed  100  fathoms  below  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 
to  the  lofty  pines  that  shoot  up  300  feet  in  mid-air;  and 
from  the  clinging  moss  that  seems  almost  a  part  of  the  rock 
on  which  it  grows,  to  the  expanded  banyan  tree  of  India,  with 
its  innumeral>ly  connected  trunks,  overshadowing  acres  ; 
every  thing  that  is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  delightful  to  the  eye, 
and  grateful  to  the  smell,  equally  with  whatever  is  nauseou*, 
revolting  and  loathsome,  are  only  products  of  the  same 
materials,  slightly  differing  in  association  and  arrangement. 

BARN. YARD    MANURE. 

The  first  consideration  in  the  management  of  manures,  is 
to  secure  them  against  all  waste.  The  bulk,  solubility  and 
peculiar  tendency  to  fermentation  of  barn-yard  manure,  ren^ 
ders  it  a  matter  of  no  little  study  so  to  arrange  it  as  to  pre- 
serve all  its  good  qualities  and  apply  it  undiminished  to  the 
soil.     A    part   of  the    droppings    of   the   cattle  are    neces- 


54  AMERICAN    AGRICTTLTT^Tir.. 

sarily  left  in  the  pastures,  or  ubout  the  «tackd  where  they  are 
led ;  though  it  is  Ijettcr,  for  various  reasons,  that  they  should 
never  receive  their  food  from  the  stack.  The  manure  thus 
left  in  the  fields,  should  be  beaten  up  and  scattered  with  light 
long-handled  mallets,  immediately  after  the  grass  starts  in 
the  spring,  and  again  before  the  rains  commence  in  the 
autumn.  With  these  exceptions,  and  the  slight  waste  which 
may  occur  in  driving  cattle  to  and  from  the  pasture,  all  the 
manure  should  be  dropped  either  in  the  stables  or  yards. 
These  should  be  so  arranged  that  cattle  may  pass  from  one 
directly  into  the  other;  and  the  yard  should  if  possible,  be 
furnished  with  running  water.  There  is  twice  the  value  of 
manure  wasted  annually  on  some  farms  in  sending  the  cattle 
abroad  to  water,  that  would  be  required  to  provide  it  for  them 
in  the  yard  for  50  years. 

The  premises  where  the  manure  is  dropped,  should  be  kept 
as  dry  as  possible  ;  and  the  eaves  should  project  several  feet 
beyond  the  side  of  the  building  so  as  to  protect  the  manure 
thrown  out  of  the  stables,  from  the  wash  of  rains.  The  barns 
and  all  the  sheds  should  have  eave-troughs  to  carry  off  the 
water,  which  if  saved  in  a  sufficiently  capacious  cistern, 
would  furnish  a  supply  for  the  cattle.  The  form  of  the  yard 
ought  to  be  dishing  towards  the  centre,  and  if  on  sandy  or 
gravelly  soil,  it  should  be  puddled  or  covered  with  clay  to 
])revent  the  leaking  and  escape  of  the  liquid  manure.  The 
floors  of  the  stables  may  be  so  made,  as  to  permit  the  urine 
to  fall  on  a  properly  prepared  bed  of  turf  under  them,  where  it 
would  be  retained  till  removed ;  or  it  should  be  led  of!"  by 
troughs  into  the  yard  or  to  a  muck  heap. 

It  is  better  to  feed  the  straw  and  coarse  fodder,  which  can 
always  be  advantageously  done  by  cutting  and  mixing  it  with 
meal  or  roots.  When  it  is  not  thus  consumed,  it  may  first 
be  used  as  litter  for  the  cattle,  and  as  it  becomes  saturated 
with  the  droppings,  it  should  be  thrown  into  the  yard.  If  the 
rattle  are  fed  under  sheds,  the  whole  surface  ought  to  be 
covered  with  such  straw,  refuse  forage,  &c.  as  can  be  col- 
lected ;  and  if  there  is  a  deficiency  of  these,  peat  or  any  turf 
well  filled  with  the  roots  of  grass,  and  especially  the  rich 
w'ash  from  the  road  side  may  be  substituted.  The  manure 
tnay  be  allow^ed  to  acciunulate  througii  the  winter,  unless  it 
be  more  convenient  to  carry  it  on  to  the  fields.  When  the 
warm  weather  approaches,  a  close  attention  to  the  manure  is 
necessary.     The  escape  of  the  frost  permits  circulation  of  the 


ORGANIC    MANimr.S.  65 

ait-  through  it,  and  the  ijicrcasing  heat  of  the  hiin  promotes 
it;s  (Icconiposition. 

Long  and  Sjiort  Manure. — The  question  has  been  often 
mooted  as  to  the  comparative  advantages  of  long  and  short 
manm'e,  {the  fermented  and  unfermented,)  This  must  depend 
on  the  use  for  which  they  are  designed.  If  intended  for  the 
garden  beds,  or  for  loose  light  soils,  or  as  a  top  dressing  for 
meadows,  or  any  crops,  or  if  needed  to  kill  any  noxious  seeds 
incorporated  with  the  heap,  it  should  be  fermented ;  if  for 
hoed  crops  in  clay  or  loamy  soils,  it  should  be  used  in  as 
fresh  condition  as  possible.  Loose  soils  are  still  farther 
loosened  for  a  time  by  long  manure,  and  much  of  its  volatile 
parts  is  lost  before  it  is  reduced  to  mold  ;  while  adhesive  and 
compact  soils  are  improved  by  the  coarse  vegetables  which 
tend  to  their  separation ;  and  all  the  gases  which  are  set 
free  in  fermentation,  are  combined  and  firmly  held  in  the 
soil. 

Decomposition  of  Manures.  —  Three  conditions  are 
essential  to  produce  rapid  decomposition  in  manure ;  air, 
moisture  and  a  temperature  above  65",  and  these  except  in 
frosty  weathoi',  are  generally  present  in  the  heap.  The 
gradual  chemical  changes  going  on  in  all  manures,  but  most 
actively  in  the  excrements  of  the  horse  and  sheep  where  they 
have  sufficient  air  and  moisture,  induce  an  elevation  which 
keeps  them  always  above  the  low  temperature  of  the  sur- 
rounding air.  If  the  manure  be  trodden  compactly  and  satu- 
rated with  water,  the  air  cannot  circulate,  and  if  its  tempera- 
ture be  likewise  kept  down,  it  will  be  preserved  a  long  time 
unchanged.  The  fermentation  of  manure  should  go  forward 
when  thoroughly  blended  with  all  the  vegetable  and  liquid 
fertilizers  about  the  premises,  including  urine,  brine,  soap- 
suds, ashes,  gypsum  and  coal-dust ;  the  last  three  substances 
combining  with  the  ammonia  as  it  is  formed.  Over  all  these 
should  be  placed  a  good  coating  of  turf,  peat  or  fine  mould, 
which  will  absorb  any  gases  that  escape  the  gypsum,  &c. 
Old  mortar  or  effete  lime  may  also  be  added  for  the  formation 
of  nitric  acid.  It  draws  this  not  only  from  the  materials  in 
the  heap,  but  largely  also  from  the  nitrogen  of  the  air ;  it 
having  been  ascertained  in  the  manufacture  of  saltpetre, 
(nitrate  of  potash,)  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  salt,  is 
greatly  increased  above  that  in  the  manure  used.  The 
absorption  of  nitre  by  lime  in  a  course  of  years,  is  found  to 
be  large,  as  is  seen  by  the  practice  of  the  Chinese  farmers, 
who  to  secure  it  will  gratuitously  remove  the  old  plaster  on 


56  AMERICAN    AORICITLTTIRT:. 

walls  and  replace  it  with  new.  If  required  to  hasteJi  decay, 
and  especially  it'  there  be  intractable  vegetables,  as  broom 
and  other  corn-stalks,  or  sucli  as  have  seeds  that  ought  to  be 
destroyed,  they  may  be  well  moistened  and  thrown  together 
in  layers  three  or  four  inches  thick;  and  on  each  may  be 
strewn  a  liberal  coaling  of  fresh  unslacked  lime  reduced  to 
powder.  This  promotes  decomposition,  and  when  it  is  far 
enough  advanced,  the  whole  may  be  sparingly  added  to  the 
general  mass,  as  the  lime  will  by  that  time  have  become 
mild.  These  coarse  materials,  when  remote  from  the  cattle 
yaixl,  may  be  at  once  burned,  and  the  ashes  added  to  the  soil, 
or  they  may  be  buried  in  furrows,  where  the  ground  will  not 
be  disturbed,  till  they  are  entirely  rotted. 

When  thoroughly  decomposed,  the  manure  heap  will  have 
lost  half  its  original  weight,  most  of  which  has  escaped  as 
water  and  carbonic  acid.  It  may  then  be  carted  on  to  the 
ground,  and  at  once  incorporated  with  it ;  or  if  intended  for 
1.  top  dressing,  it  should  be  scattered  over  it  immediately 
before  or  during  wet  weather.  For  the  protection  of  the 
manure,  it  would  be  well  to  cover  it  with  a  roof  and  convey 
off  all  the  water  from  the  eaves.  This  will  prevent  any 
waste  of  the  soluble  matter  and  promote  the  escape  of  mois- 
ture by  the  free  circulation  of  air,  which  to  the  extent  of  this 
evaporation,  will  lessen  the  labor  of  hauling. 

Tanks  for  holding  liquid  manure  have  long  been  in 
use.  They  should  be  convenient  to  the  stalls  and  yards,  and 
light  drains  should  convey  into  them  every  particle  of  the 
urine  and  drainage  from  the  manure.  In  compact  clay  they 
may  be  made  by  simply  excavating  the  earth,  and  the  sides 
can  be  kept  from  falling  in,  by  a  rough  wall  or  by  planks  sup- 
ported in  an  upright  position,  by  a  frame-work  of  joice.  But 
in  all  cases  the  cisterns  should  be  closely  covered  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  ammonia,  which  is  developed  while  ferment- 
ing.  In  porous  soils,  it  is  necessary  to  construct  them  with 
Ktone  or  brick  laid  in  water-lime  or  cement. 

When  partially  filled,  fermentation  will  soon  take  place  in 
thft  tank,  and  especially  in  warm  weather ;  gypsum  or  char- 
coal should  then  be  thrown  in  to  absorb  the  annnonia.  A  fe^^ 
days  after  decomposition  commences,  it  should  be  pumped 
into  casks  and  carried  on  to  the  land.  If  intended  for  watei  - 
ing  plants,  it  must  be  diluted  sufticiently  to  prevent  injury  to 
them.  The  quantity  will  depend  ou  the  strength  of  thojl. 
liquid,  and  the  time  it  is  applied,  much  less  water  being 
necessary  to  dilute  it  in  a  wet  than  in  a  dry  time.     By  fer- 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  57 

meriting  in  the  open  air  and  undiluted,  it  has  been  tbund  that 

in  six  weeks,  cow's  urine  will  lose  nearly  one  half  of  its  solid 

matter  or  salts,  and  6-7ths  of  its  ammonia  ;  while  that  which 

had   been   mixed   with  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  lost  only 

l-18tii  of  the  former  and  l-9ih  of  the   latter.     The    stables 

and  troughs  leading  to  the  tank  should  be  frequently  washed 

down  and  sprinkled  with  gypsum.     This  last  will   absori) 

,  much  of  the  ammonia  which  would  otherwise  escape.  Some 

1  loss  of  the  volatile  matter  must  be  expected,  and  the  sooner 

I  it  is  used  after  proper  fermentation  or  ripeness,  as  it  is  termed, 

f  the  greater  will  be  the  economy. 

Liquid  manure  applied  to  the  muck  heap.  —  As  a 
general  rule,  it  is  more  economical  and  a  great  saving  of  labor 
to  keep  the  urine  above  ground  and  mix  it  at  once  with  the 
manure  ;  but  in  this  case  vegetable  or  earthly  absorbents 
must  be  adequately  supplied  ;  and  in  addition,  the  heap  ought 
frequently  to  be  sprinkled  with  gypsum  or  charcoal.  Rich 
turf,  the  wash  of  the  road-side,  tan-bark  or  saw-dust,  and  all 
refuse  vegetables  may  be  used  for  this  pui-pose,  and  so  placed 

■  that  the  liquid  can  run  on  to  them,  or  be  deposited  where  it  can 
be  poured  over  it.    The  same  protection  of  a  rough  open  shed 

•  should  be  given  to  this  as  to  the  other  heaps,  to  facilitate  evapo- 
.  ration  and  prevent  drenching  from  rains.  When  fully  satu- 
"  rated  with  the  urinary  salts  and  all  is  properly  decomposed,  it 

■  may  be  carried  out  tor  use,  or  closely  covered  with  earth  till 
j  wanted.  The  decomposition  is  in  a  great  measure  arrested 
Jby  covering  with  compact  earth  thoroughly  trodden  together  ; 
I  this  prevents  the  access  of  air,  which  is  essential  to  its 
/  progress. 

A  simple  yet  economical  mode  of  saving  the  liquid  manure, 
is  sometimes  adopted  in  Scotland,  and  is  thus  detailed: 

**  We  divide  a  shed  into  two  compartments,  one  of  which  we 
make  water-tight,  by  puddling  the  side  walls  with  clay  to  the 
height,  say,  of  two  feet,  and  separated  from  the  other  com- 
partment by  a  low  water-tight  wall  or  boarding.  This  is  my 
fermenting  tank,  which  is  filled  half  or  three  parts  full  of  pul- 
verized burnt  peat,  and  the  liquid  manure  from  the  stable,  pig- 
styes,  &c.,  directed  into  it.  This  is  mixed  up  with  the  pul- 
verized peat,  and  allowed  to  remain  three  or  four  week^,  till 
the  decomposition  seems  about  completed,  being  occasionally 
stirred  about  atter  the  composition  has  become  about  the  con- 
sistency of  gruel.  The  whole  is  then  ladled  (with  a  pole  and 
bucket)  over  the  low  partition  into  the  second  floor,  which  is 
also  three  parts  filled  with  the  carbonized  peat ;  and  as  the 


58  AMERICAN    AORICULTIRE. 

second  floor  is  meant  merely  a«  a  filter,  we  have  it  lower  oti 
one  side  than  the  other,  by  whieh  means,  in  the  course  of  a 
day  or  two,  the  carbonized  peat  is  left  comjjaratively  dry. 
The  water  having  passed  oil*  at  the  lower  side,  the  first  or 
fermenting  floor  is  again  filled  as  before,  and  the  contents  of 
the  second  floor,  if  considered  saturated  enough,  are  then 
shovelled  up  into  a  corner,  and  allowed  to  diip,  and  further 
dry  till  used,  which  may  be  either  immediately,  or  at  the  end 
of  twenty  years,  as  scarcely  an}4hing  will  aftect  it,  if  not  ex- 
posed to  the  continued  washing  of  pure  water,  or  exposed  to 
the  influence  of  the  roots  of  growing  plants.  By  being 
thinly  spread  on  a  granary  floor,  it  soon  becomes  perfectly 
dry,  and  suited  to  pass  through  drill  machines. 

"  The  mixing  of  the  carbonized  peat  with  the  liquid  manure 
on  the  first  or  fermenting  floor,  it  will  be  observed,  is  for 
laying  hold  of  the  gaseous  matters  as  they  escape  during  the 
fermentation  ;  perhaps  other  substances  may  eftect  this  more 
eflectually,  but  none  so  cheaply.  I  think  by  this  plan  it  will 
be  obvious  to  every  one  that  a  great  many  desiderata  are  at 
once  obtained.  In  the  first  place,  you  get  free  of  over  900 
parts  out  of  every  1,000  of  the  weight  and  bulk  of  manure,  by 
tlie  expulsion  of  the  water  ;  while  at  the  same  time  you  link 
all  the  fertilizing  properties  contained  in  it  to  one  of  the  most 
handy  vehicles — light,  cleanly,  and  portable,  and  possessed 
of  the  peculiar  property  of  holding  together  the  most  volatile 
substances,  till  gradually  called  forth  by  the  exigencies  of  the 
growing  plants.  Lastly,  you  get  free  of  the  tank,  hogshead 
and  watering  cart,  with  all  its  appendages,  and  are  no  more 
bothered  with  overflowing  tank,  or  overfermented  liquid,  with 
weather  unsuited  to  its  application.  You  have  merely  to 
shovel  past  the  saturated  charcoal,  and  shovel  in  a  little  h*esh 
stuflf,  and  the  process  goes  on  again,  Avhile  the  prepared  stufts 
lie  ready  tor  all  crops,  all  seasons  and  all  times." 

Valup:  of  Liquid  Manures. — The  urine  voided  from  a 
single  cow  is  considered  in  Flanders,  where  agricultural 
practice  has  reached  a  high  state  of  advancement,  to  be 
worth  $10  per  annum.  It  furnishes  900  lbs.  of  solid  matter, 
and  at  the  price  of  $50  per  ton,  for  which  guano  is  frequently 
sohl,  the  urine  of  a  cow  for  one  year  is  worth  $20.  And 
yet  economical  farmers  will  continue  to  waste  urine  and  buy 
guano  !  "The  urine  of  a  cow  for  a  year  will  manure  li 
acres  of  land,  and  is  more  valuable  than  its  dung,  in  the>ratio 
by  bulk,  of  7  to  6  ;  and  in  real  value  as  2  to  1." — Dana.  , 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  59 

Ifow  important  then,  that  every  particle  of  it  be   carefully 
liu.sbanded  for  the  crops. 

The  average  urine  of  the  cow,  as  analyzed  by  Sprengel, 
contains  9'2.6  per  cent,  of  water ;  that  of  the  horse,  94  ;  the 
sheep,  9G  ;  the  hog,  92.6  ;  and  the  human,  93.3.  The 
remainder  is  composed  of  salts  and  rich  vegetable  food  ; 
but  the  human  is  far  licher  in  these  than  any  other.  The 
quantity  and  value  of  urine  varies  much,  and  depends  on 
the  food  and  liquid  taken  into  the  stomach,  the  loss  by 
perspiration,  &c. 

Solid  Animal  manures. — Of  these  Horse  dung  is  the 
richest  and  the  easiest  to  decompose.  If  in  heaps,  fermenta- 
tion will  sometimes  commence  in  24  hours;  and  even  in  mid- 
winter if  a  large  pile  be  accumulated,  it  will  proceed  with 
great  rapidity;  and  if  not  anested,  a  few  weeks  under  favor, 
able  circumstances,  are  sufficient  to  reduce  it  to  a  small  part 
of  its  original  weight  and  value.  Boussingault,  one  of  the 
most  careful  observers  of  nature,  as  well  as  an  accurate 
experimental  chemist,  states  the  nitrogen  in  fresh  dried  horse 
dung  to  be  2.7  per  cent.  The  same  manure  laid  in  a  thick 
stratum  and  permitted  to  undergo  entire  decomposition,  loses 
9-10  of  its  whole  weight,  and  the  remaining  tenth  when 
dried,  gives  only  1  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  Such  are  the 
losses  which  follow  the  neglect  of  inconsiderate  farmers. 
Peculiar  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  arrest  this  action 
at  the  precise  point  desired. 

The  manure  of  Sheep  is  rich  and  very  active,  and  next  to 
that  of  the  horse  is  the  most  subject  to  heat  and  decompose. 
The  manure  of  Cattle  and  Suine  being  of  a  colder  nature, 
may  be  thrown  in  with  that  of  the  horse  and  sheep  in  alter- 
nate  layers.  If  fresh  mjiinure  be  intermixed  with  straw  and 
other  absorbents,  (vegetables,  peat,  turf,  &c.)  and  constantly 
added,  the  recent  coating  will  combine  with  any  volatile 
matters  which  fermentation  developes  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  mass.  Frequent  turning  of  the  manures  is  a  practice 
attended  with  no  benelit,  but  with  the  certainty  of  the  escape 
of  much  of  its  valuable  properties.  Many  farmers  assign  a 
distinct  or  peculiar  merit  to  the  different  manures.  Much  of 
this  opinion  is  fanciful,  for  there  is  frequently  more  difference 
in  the  comparative  value  of  that  from  the  same  species,  and 
even  the  same  individual,  at  different  times  and  under  differ- 
ent circumstances,    than  from  those  of  different  species. 

The  diversity    in  manures  may  arise  from  several  causes. 
The   more   thoroughly  the   food  is  digested  and  its  niUi-itive 


60  AMERICAN     AGKICULTUKE. 

qualities  extracted,  the  less  is  the  value  of  the  manure.  Thus 
on  the  same  quantity  and  quality  of  food,  a  growing  animal, 
or  a  cow  in  calfj  or  giving  milk,  yields  a  poorer  quality  of 
foeces,  then  such  as  are  not  increasing  in  weight,  and  if  the 
animal  be  actually  losing  condition,  the  richness  of  the  ma- 
nure is  very  much  increased.  The  quality  of  food  adds 
materially  to  this  difference,  the  richest  giving  by  far  the 
most  valuable  manure.  Those  animals  which  are  kept  on  a 
scanty  supply  of  straw  or  refuse  hay,  yield  manure  little  better 
than  good  tmf,  and  far  inferior  to  the  droppings  of  such  as 
are  highly  fed.  The  imperfect  mastication  of  the  horse  and 
mule,  in  comparison  with  the  ruminating  animals,  the  ox  and 
sheep,  their  generally  better  quality  of  food,  and  the  fact 
that  for  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  they  are  not  ^.dding  to 
their  carcass,  is  the  cause  of  the  increased  value  of  their 
manure.  Their  solid  foeces  are  also  much  richer  than  those 
of  the  cow,  as  they  void  less  urine  and  this  is  of  an  indiffer- 
ent character.  In  a  {png  series  of  carefel  experiments,  made 
at  Dresden  and  Berlin  by  order  of  the  Saxon  and  Prussian 
governments,  it  was  ascertained  that  soil  which  would  yield 
3  for  1  sown,  when  dressed  with  cow  dung  \A'ould  give  7  ; 
with  horse  dung  10;  and  with  human  14. 

POUDRETTE  AND  URATE, 

Poudrette  is  the  name  given  to  the  human  foeces  after  they 
have  been  mixed  with  charcoal  dust  or  charred  peat,  by  which 
it  is  disinfected  of  its  effluvia,  and  when  dried  it  becomes  a 
convenient  article  for  use,  and  even  for  remote  transportation. 
The  odor  is  sometimes  expelled  by  adding  quick  lime,  but 
this  removes  with  it  much  of  the  ammonia,  and  on  this  ac- 
count  should  always  be  avoided. 

Urate  as  well  as  poudrette,  h'as  become  an  article  of 
commerce.  It  is  manufactured  in  large  cities  by  collecting 
the  urine  and  mixing  with  it  1-6  or  1-7  of  its  weight  ot* 
ground  gypsum,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  several  days.  This 
combines  \\\\\\  a  portion  of  the  ammonia,  after  which  it  i,s 
dried  and  the  liquid  is  thrown  away.  Only  a  part  of  the 
value  is  secured  by  this  operation.  It  is  sometimes  prepared 
by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  gradually  added  to  urine 
and  forms  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  is  afterwards  dried. 
This  secures  a  greater  amount  of  the  valuable  properties  of 
the  urine;  but  even  this  is  not  without  waste. 

Night  soil. — From  the  analysis  of  Berzelius,  the  excrements (. 
of  a    heahhy   man  yielded  water,  733;   albumen,  9;  bile,  9: 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  61 

iriuscilagc  fat  and  the  animal  niattcr;?,  IG"?;  saline  niafters,  12; 
and  uadecomj)osod  food,  70;  in  1000  parts.  When  freed  from 
water,  1000  parts  left,  of  ash,  132;  and  this  yielded,  carbon- 
ate of  soda.  8;  sulphate  of  soda,  with  a  little  sulphate  of  po- 
tash,  and  phosphate  of  soda,  8;  phosphate  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  and  a  trace  of  gypsum,  100;  silica,  16. 

Human  urine^  according  to  the  same  authority  gives  in 
every  1000  parts;  of  \vater,  933;  urea,  30.1;  uric  acid,  1;  free 
lactic  acid,  lactate  of  ammonia,  and  inseperable  animal  mat- 
ter, 17.1;  mucus  of  the  bladder,  0.3;  sulphate  of  potash,  3.7; 
sulphate  of  soda,  3.2,  phosphate  of  soda,  2.9;  phosphate  of 
ammonia,  l.G;  common  salt,  4.5;  sal  amoniac,  1.5;  phosphates 
of  lime  acid  magnesia,  with  a  trace  of  silica  and  of  fluoride  ot 
ralcuim,  1.1. 

Urea  according  to  Prout,  gives  of  carbon,  19.99;  oxygen, 
26.63;  hydrogen,  6.65;  nitrogen,  46,65.  The  analysis  of 
Wcehler  and  Liebig  difters  immaterially  from  this.  Such  are 
the  materials,  abounding  in  every  ingredient  that  can  minister 
to  the  production  of  plants,  which  are  suffered  to  waste  in  the 
air,  and  taint  its  purity  and  healthfullness;  or  they  are  buried 
deep  in  the  earth  beyond  the  reach  of  any  useful  application, 
and  even  in  this  position,  (frequently  in  villages,  and  always 
in  cities,)  they  pollute  the  waters  with  their  disgusting  and 
poisonous  effluvia.  The  water  from  one  of  the  wells  in 
J3oston  examined  by  Dr.  Jackson,  gave  an  appreciable  per 
centage  of  night  soi  1! 

Treatment  of  Night  Soil.  —  No  perfect  mode  has  yet 
been  devised  of  managing  night  soil.  For  compactness  and 
iacility  of  removal  we  suggest,  that  in  cities,  metallic  boxes 
of  sufficient  capacity  be  placed  in  the  privies,  so  arranged  as 
to  be  easily  taken  out  in  the  rear  for  the  purpose  of  emptying 
their  contents.  To  prevent  corrosion,  they  should  be  made 
of  composite  or  galvanized  metal.  In  the  country  where  it 
can  be  at  once  applied,  tight  wooden  boxes  may  be  used,  with 
hooks  on  the  outer  side,  to  which  a  team  may  be  attached, 
for  drawing  it  out  wherever  required.  The  boxes  should 
have  a  coating  at  the  bottom,  and  successively  as  they  become 
tilled,  of  charcoal  dust,  charred  peat,  or  gypsum.  These 
materials  are  cheap,  compact  and  combine  readily  with  the 
volatile  gasses.  Sulphuric  acid  is  more  efficient  than  either 
but  more  expensive.  Quick  lime  will  neutralize  the  odor 
but  it  expels  the  enriching  qualities,  and  if  it  be  intended  to 
use  the  night  soil,  lime  should  never  be  mixed  with  it.  Both, 
the  charcoal  and  peat  condense  and  retain  the  gasses  in  their 


62  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

pores,  and  the  bulphiiric  acid  of  the  gypsum  leaves  the  lime, 
and  like  the  free  aeid,  combines  with  the  ammonia,  forming 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  an  inodorous  and  powerful  fertilizer. 
Raw  peat,  turf,  dry  tan  bark,  saw-dust  and  ashes  are  all  good; 
but  as  more  bulk  is  needed  to  effect  the  object  their  use  is 
attended  with  greater  inconvenience.  From  its  great  ten- 
dency to  decompose,  night  soil  should  be  immediately  covered 
with  earth  when  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  always  saved  by  the 
Flemings  and  Chinese,  the  former  generally  using  it  liquid, 
and  the  latter  either  as  a  liquid  or  mixed  with  clay  and  dried 
like  brick. 

The  use  of  this  manure  effectually  prevents  the  propaga- 
tion of  all  weeds.  Its  value  like  all  others,  depend  much  on 
the  food  tiom  which  it  is  derived. 

THE  EXCREMENTS  OF  FOWLS. 
These  contain  both  the  fceces  and  urine  combined,  and  are 
next  to  night  soil  in  value.  They  should  be  mixed  at  once 
with  the  soil,  or  with  a  compost  where  its  volatile  matters  will 
be  retained.  They  are  very  soluble  and  when  exposed  to 
moisture,  are  liable  to  waste. 

FLESH,  BLOOD,  &c. 

When  decompossclrthese  substances  afford  all  the  materials 
of  manure  in  its  most  condensed  form.  Whenever  procure- 
able,  they  should  be  mixed  with  8  or  10  times  their  weight 
of  dry  peat,  turf,  tan  bark  or  rich  garden  mould.  A  dead 
cow  or  horse  thus  buried  in  a  bed  of  peat,  will  yield  10  or  15 
loads  of  the  richest  manure.  Butchers  offal  will  give  20 
times  its  weight  of  more  valuable  manure  than  any  ftom  his 
cattle  yards. 

HAIR,  HORNS.  HOOFS,  PELTS,  WOOLEN  RAGS,  AND  THE 
FLOCKS,  AND  WASTE  OF  WOOLEN  MANUFACTORIES 

Are  rich  in  every  organic  substance  required  by  plants, 
and  when  mingled  with  the  soil  they  gradually  yield  them, 
and  afford  a  permanent  and  luxuriant  growth  to  every 
cultivated  crop.  All  animal  substances  contain  about  15  or 
18  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

FISH. 
Fish  are  extensively  used  in  this  and  other  countries  for  ma- 
nure.      The   moss-banker,    alewives  or   bony  fish  frequent 
the  Atlantic  coast  in  countless  numbers   in  the  spring,  and  are 
there  caught  in  seines,  and  sold  to  the  farmers  by  the  wagon'^ 
load.     They  are  sometimes  plowed  into  the  soil  with  a  spring 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  63 

crop;  or  are  more  licqueutly  used  for  growing  corn,  tor  which 
purpose  one  or  two  lish  are  placed  in  each  liill  and  buried 
with  the  seed.  This  was  the  system  adopted  Ijy  the  Abori- 
gines of  our  country  in  raising  their  maize  on  exhausted  lands, 
long  betbre  their  occupancy  or  even  discovery  by  the  whites. 
There  is  waste  in  this  practice,  as  the  soils  used  for  corn  are 
generally  light  sandy,  and  the  slight  silicious  covering  im- 
perfectly combines  with  the  putrefying  fish,  and  much  of  their 
g.ises  thereljy  eludes  the  plant,  to  the  excessive  anoyance  of 
the  olfactories  for  miles  around. 

The  proper  method  of  using  them,  is  by  composting  with 
dry  peat  in  alternate  layers  of  about  three  inches  in  thickness 
offish  to  nine  of  peat,  and  over  the  whole  a  coating  of  2  to  4  feet 
of  peat  is  placed.  A  few  months  of  warm  weather  sufl^ices 
to  decompose  the  fish,  which  unite  with  the  peat,  no  percept- 
ible eflrluvia  escaping  from  the  heap  so  effectual  is  its  absorb- 
tion.  A  strong  acid  smell  is  however  noticeable,  originating 
in  the  escape  of  the  acidifying  or  antiseptic  principle,  which 
has  kept  the  peat  for  ages  in  a  state  of  preservation,  and 
whose  expulsion  is  the  signal  for  breaking  up  its  own  struc- 
ture. It  now  passes  rapidly  into  decay,  and  is  soon  lost  in 
a  mass  of  undistinguishable  vegetable  mold,  the  fruitful 
bed  of  new  and  varied  vegetable  forms.  This  compost  may 
remain  without  injury,  for  years.  Two  or  three  weeks  be- 
fore using,  it  should  be  overhauled  and  intimately  mixed, 
when  another  fermentation  commences  with  an  elevation  of 
temperature.  When  this  ceases,  it  may  be  applied  to  the 
land,  and  is  suited  to  nearly  all  soils  and  crops. 

SEA  WEED 
Is  a  powerful  aid  to  the  farmer  when  within  convenient 
distances.  It  is  thrown  upon  the  sea  coast  by  the  waves  in 
large  Avindrows,  or  it  is  carefully  raked  up  from  the  rocks  or 
])ottom  of  the  bays,  either  by  farmers  or  those  who  make  it 
a  business  to  procure  and  sell  it.  It  may  be  used  as  bedding 
for  cattle  or  litter  for  the  barn  yard,  or  added  directly  to  the 
compost  heap.  Where  the  distance  for  carrying  it  would 
prevent  its  use,  it  may  be  burned  and  the  ashes  removed  to 
the  land.  It  has  much  more  saline  matter  than  vegetables 
which  grow  on  land   and  yields  a  more  valuable  manure. 

PEAT. 
This  substance  is  seldom  found  in  this  country  in  the 
purity   that   characterizes   it   in   many   parts  of  Northern 
Europe.     There,  its  nearly  pure  carbonaceous  quality  admits 


(54  A3IBRICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

of  its  extensive  use  as  fuel.  In  the  United  States  it  is  gener- 
ally mixed  with  the  wash  from  the  adjacent  elevations,  which 
renders  it  more  easily  susceptible  of  profitable  cultivation  in 
its  native  bed,  and  not  less  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  when 
applied  to  other  lands.  In  six  different  specimens  from 
Northampton,  and  four  from  other  localities  in  Massachu- 
setts, Dr.  Dana  found  an  average  of  29.41  soluble,  and  .55.03 
insoluble  geine  or  humus  ;  and  15.55  of  salts  and  silicates 
in  every  100  parts.  The  extensive  researches  of  the  same 
intelligent  observer  have  led  him  to  recommend  the  mixture 
of  30  lbs.  potash,  or  20  lbs.  of  soda  ash,  or  what  is  more 
economical  and  equally  efficacious,  8  bushels  of  unleached 
wood  ashes,  with  one  cord  of  peat  as  it  is  dug  from  its  bed  ; 
or  if  leached  ashes  be  used,  they  should  be  mixed  in  th«^ 
proportion  of  one  to  three  of  peat.  This  he  considers  fully 
equivalent  to  pure  cow  dung  in  value.  He  also  estimates 
the  salts  and  humus  of  4  cords  of  peat,  as  equal  to  the 
manure  of  a  cow  for  one  year.  The  opinion  of  Mr.  Phin- 
ney,  a  distinguished  agriculturist  of  Lexington,  Mass.,  foun- 
ded on  close  observation  and  long  practice,  is  that  one  part 
of  green  cattle  dung  composted  with  twice  its  bulk  of  peat, 
will  make  the  whole  equal  in  value  to  the  unmixed  dung. 

Peat  in  its  natural  condition,  contains  from  70  to  over  90 
per  cent,  of  water.  It  should  be  dug  from  its  bed  in  the  fall 
or  whiter  for  the  purpose  of  draining  and  exposing  it  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere,  when  it  will  be  found  to  have  lost 
about  two-thirds  of  its  bulk.  In  this  state  it  still  holds  about 
65  per  cent  of  water.  It  may  then  he  carted  in  to  the  cattle 
yards,  and  used  for  making  composts  in  any  way  desired. 

MANURING  WITH  GREEN  CROPS. 
This  system  has  within  a  few  years,  been  extensively 
adopted  in  some  of  the  older  settled  portions  of  the  United 
States.  The  comparative  cheapness  of  land  and  its  pro- 
ducts,  the  high  price  of  labor,  and  the  consequent  expense  of 
making  artificial  manures,  renders  this  at  present  the  most 
economical  plan  which  can  be  pursued.  The  object  of  this 
practice  is  primarily,  fertilization  ;  and  connected  with  it,  is 
the  clearing  of  the  ground  from  noxious  weeds,  as  in  fallows, 
by  plowing  in  the  vegetation  before  the  seed  is  ripened ;  and 
finally  to  loosen  the  soil  and  place  it  in  the  mellowest  condi- 
tion for  the  crops  which  are  to  succeed.  Its  results  have 
been  entirely  successful,  when  steadily  pursued  with  a  due 
consideration  of  the  objects  sought,  and  the  means  by  which 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  Gf) 

lliey  are  to  be  aeconiplished.  Lands  in  many  of  our  Eastern 
States,  whieh  have  been  worn  out  by  improvident  eultivation, 
and  unsalaeble  at  $10  an  aere,  have  by  this  means,  while 
steadily  remunerating  their  proprietors  tor  all  the  outlay  of 
labor  and  expense  by  their  returning  crops,  been  l)rought  up 
in  value  to  $50. 

The  full  benefits  of  green  crops  seems  only  to  be  realized 
where  there  is  sufficient  calcareous  matter  in  the  soil.  Cal- 
careous soils,  or  such  as  have  a  large  proportion  of  lime, 
however  they  may  have  become  exhausted,  when  put  under 
a  thorough  course  of  treatment  in  which  green  crops  at 
proper  intervals  are  returned  to  them,  are  soon  restored  to 
fertility  ;  and  when  lime  does  not  exist  in  the  soil,  the  appli- 
cation of  it  in  the  proper  manner  and  quantity  will  produce 
the  same  effect.  Gypsum  and  ashes  are  the  best  substitutes, 
when  lime  or  marl  is  difficult  to  be  procured. 

This  system  of  improvement  varies  with  almost  every  indi- 
vidual who  practices  it,  according  to  the  quality  of  his  land, 
the  kind  of  crops  to  be  raised,  the  facility  of  procuring 
manures,  the  luxuriance  of  particular  crops,  &;c.  We  shall 
state  merely  the  general  principles  in  this,  as  in  most  other 
subjects,  and  leave  to  the  farmer's  judgment  to  apply  them 
according  to  his  circumstances.  It  is  always  better  to  com- 
mence this  system  while  the  land  is  in  good  condition,  as  a 
luxuriant  gro^vth  of  vegetation  is  as  profitable  for  turning  in 
as  for  cropping.  Buckwheat,  rye,  and  some  of  the  grasses, 
have  been  much  used  for  this  purpose  in  this  country  ;  and 
spurry,  the  white  lupine,  the  vetch  and  rape  in  Europe  ;  but 
for  the  Northern  portion  of  the  Union,  nothing  has  been 
hitherto  tried  which  is  so  well  fitted  for  the  object  as  red 
clover. 

Clover  for  Green  Manures.  This  is  suited  to  all 
soils  that  will  grow  anything  profitably,  from  sand,  if  possess- 
ing an  adequate  amount  of  fertility,  to  the  heaviest  clay  if 
drained  of  its  superfluous  water.  The  seed  is  cheap,  its 
growth  certain  and  rapid,  and  the  expense  of  its  cultivation 
trifling,  while  the  return  on  a  kindly  soil  and  with  proper 
treatment  is  large.  Added  to  this  and  very  much  increasing 
its  merits,  is  the  abundance  of  its  long  tap  roots,  which  pene- 
trate the  giound  to  a  great  depth  and  break  up  the  stifl' soils 
in  a  manner  peculiarly  beneficial  to  succeeding  crops.  The 
material  yielded  by  the  roots  and  stubble,  is  of  itself  equal  to 
a  good  dressing  of  manure.  It  has  the  further  advantage  of 
giving  tvv'o  or  more  years  growth  from  one  gowing,  and  pf 


66  AMERICAN    AORICULTITRii. 

inaiutaiuing  ittclt  in  the  ground  therctillcr  by  bell'  beedin^ 
wlicn  not  too  closely  cropped  ;  and  it  is  equally  suited  to 
prolitable  pasturage  and  winter  forage. 

If  the  first  season  of  growth  of  clover  be  luxuriant  aftet 
the  removal  of  the  grain  upon  which  it  was  sown,  it  may  \)e 
pastured  in  the  autumn  or  suffered  to  fall  and  waste  on  the 
ground,  the  first  being  the  most  economical.  The  following 
year,  the  early  crops  may  be  taken  off  for  hay,  and  the  se- 
cond, after  partially  ripening  its  seeds,  may  be  plowed  in,  and 
thus  it  carries  with  it  a  full  crop  of  seed  for  future  growth. 
It  is  usual  when  wheat  is  cultivated,  to  turn  in  the  clover 
when  in  full  flower  in  July,  and  allow  the  ground  to  remain 
imdisturbed  till  the  proper  time  for  sowing  the  grain,  when 
it  may  be  cross-plowed  if  necessary,  or  the  wheat  may  be 
sown  directly  on  the  ground  and  harrowed  in.  This  system 
gives  alternate  crops  of  grain  and  clover,  and  with  the  use  of 
such  saline  manures,  as  may  be  necessary  to  replace  those 
abstracted  from  the  soil,  will  sustain  the  greatest  fertility. 
With  a  slight  dressing  of  these  when  the  land  is  in  good  con- 
dition, the  first  crop  of  clover  may  be  taken  off,  and  yet 
allow  a  sufficient  growth  for  turning  in. 

It  is  customary  how^ever,  to  adopt  a  3  or  4  years  course  of 
cropping,  in  which  grain,  roots,  corn,  &c.  alternate  with  clover 
and  barn-yard  manures  ;  and  this  we  think  the  most  judicious 
practice  when  the  land  is  within  convenient  distance  of  the 
manure.  If  the  fields  are  remote,  a  still  longer  course  would 
be  preferable,  where  stock  and  particularly  sheep  are 
kept,  as  they  might  be  allowed  to  pasture  the  field  during  a 
much  greater  time.  Sheep  would  remove  only  so  miich  of 
the  forage  as  remains  in  their  carcass ;  while  milch  cows 
and  working  animals  would  of  course  carry  off  a  greater 
amount,  the  first  in  the  milk  and  the  last  in  their  manure 
dropped  while  out  of  the  field. 

The  Cow  Pea  is  a  rank,  luxuriant  producer,  and  is 
deemed  the  best  of  the  fertilizers  for  the  south  ;  as  it  will  there 
grow  two  crops  in  one  season  from  two  successive  plantings. 
This  is  also  a  valuable  fodder  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and  the 
ripe  peas  are  a  profitable  crop.  Like  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
clover,  it  requires  the  roller,  to  prepare  it  properly  for  the 
plough. 

Spurry  is  extensively  used  in  the  north  of  Europe,  Flan- 
ders, Germany  and  Denmark,  as  a  fertilizer  and  as  forage  f©r 
cattle,  both  in  its  green  and  dry  state.  It  is  admirably  adap- 
ted to  the  lightest  sands,  where  it  is  said  to  grow  with  more 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  67 

luxuriance  and  i»rofit  than  any  other  of  the  cultivated  plants. 
It  may  be  sown  in  the  liill  atler  grain  or  early  rootci,  and 
plowed  hi  the  following  spring.  Three  crops  may  be  grown 
on  the  same  land  in  one  season.  Van  Voght  says,  by  alter- 
niiting  these  crops  with  rye,  it  will  reclaim  the  worst  sands, 
and  yield  nearly  the  same  benefits  if  pastured  off  by  cattle  ; 
while  it  adds  materially  to  the  advantages  of  other  manures 
applied  at  the  same  time.  It  grows  spontaneously  in  many 
of  our  fields  as  a  weed,  and  its  cultivation  on  our  lightest  sands 
which  are  too  poor  for  clover,  might  be  attended  with  the 
best  effects.  Like  the  cow  pea  however,  it  is  deficient  in 
the  deep,  tap  roots,  which  give  much  of  their  efficiency  to  the 
clover  and  white  lupine. 

White  Lupine. — This  plant  has  not  to  our  knowledge, 
been  introduced  as  a  field  crop  in  this  country ;  but  from  the 
great  success  which  has  attended  its  cultivation  in  Europe, 
it  is  a  proper  subject  of  consideration,  whether  it  might  not 
be  advantageously  introduced  among  us.  It  grows  freely  in 
all  except  calcareous  soils,  and  is  best  suited  to  such  as  have 
a  subsoil  charged  with  iron.  It  is  hardy,  not  liable  to  injury 
from  insects,  grows  rapidly  and  with  an  abundance  of  stems, 
leaves  and  roots.  The  latter  protects  the  plant  from  drought 
by  penetrating  through  the  subsoil  for  a  depth  of  more  than 
two  feet,  which  they  break  up  and  prepare  in  the  most  efficient 
manner  for  succeeding  crops. 

The  advantages  of  Green  Manures  consist  principally 
in  the  addition  of  vegetable  matter  which  they  furnish  to  the 
soil.  The  presence  of  this,  aids  in  the  liberation  of  those 
mineral  ingredients  which  are  there  locked  up,  and  which 
on  being  set  free,  act  with  so  much  advantage  to  the  crop. 
The  roots  also,  exert  a  power  in  eflfecting  this  decomposition 
beyond  any  other  known  agents  either  of  nature  or  art.  Their 
minute  fibres  are  brought  into  contact  with  the  elements  of 
the  soil,  and  they  act  upon  them  with  a  force  peculiar  to 
themselves  alone,  and  which  is  fJir  more  efficacious  than  the 
intensest  heat  or  strongest  acids,  persuading  the  elements  to 
give  up  tor  their  own  use,  what  is  essential  to  their  maturity 
and  perfection.  By  substituting  a  crop  for  a  naked  fallow, 
we  have  every  fibre  of  the  roots  in  the  whole  field,  aiding  the 
ordinary  decomposition  xvhich  is  slowly  going  forward  in 
every  soil. 

Clover,  and  most  broad-leaved  plants,  draw  largely  for  their 
sustenance  from  the  air,  especially  when  aided  by  the  appli. 
cation  of  gypsum.     By  its  long  tap  roots,  it  also  draws  much 


6d  AMERICAN     AORICULTTTRF. 

Ironi  (he  ^ub-i^oil,  as  all  plants  appropriate  such  tsaliue  sub. 
stances  as  arc  necessary  to  their  maturity,  and  arc  brought  to 
their  roots  in  a  state  ot'  solution  by  the  up-welling  moisture 
from  beneath.  This  last  is  frequently  a  great  source  of  im- 
provement. The  amount  of  carbon  drawn  from  the  air  in 
the  state  of  carbonic  acid,  and  of  ammonia  and  nitric  acid, 
under  favorable  circumstances  of  soil  and  crop,  are  large ; 
and  when  buried  beneath  the  surface,  all  are  saved  and  yield 
their  fertility  to  the  land  ;  while  such  as  decay  on  the  surface 
lose  much  of  their  value  by  evaporation  and  drainage.  In 
the  green  state  fermentation  is  rapid,  and  by  resolving  the 
matter  of  plants  into  their  elements,  it  fits  the  ground  at  once 
for  a  succeeding  crop. 

THE   FALLOW    SYSTEM. 

As  a  means  of  enriching  lands,  this  was  formerly  much 
pracrised,  but  it  is  now  entirely  discarded  by  intelligent 
tarmers.  It  consists  in  plowing  up  the  land  and  exposing  it 
naked  to  the  elements,  whenever  the  exhaustion  by  tillage 
required  it.  This  practice  is  founded  on  the  principle,  that 
plants  gradually  exhaust  the  soil  of  such  soluble  food,  potash, 
soda,  &c.,  as  are  necessary  to  their  support ;  and  unless  they 
are  again  given  to  it  in  manures,  in  a  form  suited  to  their 
immediate  appropriation  by  plants,  time  is  requisite  for  dis- 
solving them  in  the  soil  so  as  to  enable  them  again  to  sup- 
port vegetation  profitably.  Besides  the  loss  resulting  from 
the  frequent  idleness  of  the  land,  naked  fallows  have  this 
liulher  disadvantage,  and  especially  in  light  and  loose  soils; 
they  are  exposed  to  the  full  action  of  the  sun  and  rains,  and 
by  evaporation  and  drainage  are  exhausted  of  much  of  their 
soluble  vegetable  food. 

This  system,  bad  as  it  is,  may  yet  be  absolutely  necessary 
where  grain  alone  is  raised,  and  no  manure  is  applied.  But 
it  is  always  avoidable  by  substituting  fallow  crops  as  they  are 
termed,  potatoes,  turneps,  &;c.  with  manure  ;  or  clover  or 
other  green  crops,  as  above  detailed :  by  which  the  land  is 
cleared  of  weeds  and  sufficiently  enriched  for  succeedinfjr 
cultivation.  Land  is  equally  well  prepared  tor  grain  by 
having  been  occupied  as  meadows,  if  they  have  been  kept  in 
good  condition  by  top  dressing  and  pastures  answer  the 
same  purpose  without  them. 


IRRIGATION    AND   DRAINING.  66 


CHAPTER    TV. 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINING. 

Irrigation  might  properly  enough  be  classed  under  the 
head  of  manures,  tor  the  materials  which  it  provides  are 
not  only  Ibod  for  plants,  but  they  aid  also  in  procuring  it 
from  other  sources.  Water  is  of  indispensable  necessity  to 
vegetable  life,  and  the  great  quantity  of  it  demanded  for 
this  purpose,  is  in  most  climates  amply  provided  by  nature 
in  the  stores  of  rain  and  dew  which  almost  every  where 
moisten  the  earth,  and  especially  during  the  early  growth  of 
vegetation  when  it  is  most  required.  In  countries  where 
rain  seldom  or  never  falls,  as  in  parts  of  South  America, 
Egypt  and  elsewhere,  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  sur- 
face is  so  rapid  under  their  clear  skies,  that  excessive 
deposites  of  dew,  generally  supply  the  plants  with  all  the 
moisture  which  they  need.  The  same  effect  takes  place  • 
throughout  most  of  the  United  States  in  our  transparent 
summer  atmosphere,  and  it  is  to  the  presence  of  copious 
dews  on  our  rich  well  cultivated  fields,  that  much  of  the 
luxuriance  and  success  is  due,  which  has  ever  attended  en- 
lightened and  judicious  American  husbandry. 

Besides  the  moisture  that  abounds  in  the  atmosphere,  bui 
which  is  Hot  always  available  in  rains  and  dews  to  the 
desired  extent  for  the  wants  of  vegetation,  and  that  which 
imperceptibly  ascends  irom  remote  depths  in  the  earth  and 
administers  to  the  support  of  plants;  it  is  a  practice  coeval 
with  the  earliest  history  of  agriculture,  to  bring  artificial 
waters  upon  the  cultivated  fields,  and  make  them  contribute 
to  the  support  of  the  crops.  In  mony  countries  this  sys- 
tem is  indispensable  to  secure  their  maturity;  for  althougii 
dews  accomplish  the  object  in  a  measure,  they  do  not  sup- 
ply it  in  the  quantity  required  to  sustain  a  vigorous  growtli. 
We  find  in  looking  to  the  practice  of  Egypt  and  the  Barbary 
States  in  Africa;  of  Syria,  Babylon,  and  other  places  in 


70  amehican  agricultube. 

Asia;  Italy,  Spain  and  elsewhere  in  Europe,  where  hus- 
bandry early  attained  a  high  rank,  that  irrigation  was 
extensively  introduced.  Damascus  is  one  of  the  moyt 
ancient  cities  on  record,  (for  it  is  mentioned  in  Genesis  as 
existing  nearly  4000  years  ago,)  and  notwithstanding  is  uuni- 
erous  successive  masters  and  its  having  been  frequently 
subject  to  plunder  and  devastation  when  conquered,  it  is  still 
a  flourishing  city,  though  in  the  midst  of  deserts.  This  is 
no  doubt  owing  to  the  waters  derived  from  the  "Abana  and 
Pharpar,  rivers  of  Damascus,"  which  are  conducted  above 
the  city  till  they  gush  from  the  fountains  and  overspread 
the  gardens,  and  subsequently  water  all  the  adjacent  plain. 
Had  it  not  been  for  irrigation,  Damascus  would  doubtless 
ages  ago,  have  followed  Palmyra,  the  Tadmor  of  the  wil- 
derness, into  utter  ruin.  On  no  other  principle  than  a 
systematic  aud  extensive  practice  of  irrigation,  can  we 
account  for  the  once  populous  condition  of  Judea,  Iduniea 
and  other  vast  regions  in  the  East,  which  to  the  eye  of  the 
modern  traveller  present  nothing  but  the  idea  of  in  eclaini- 
able  sterility  and  desolation.  The  possession  ot  the  "upper 
and  nether  springs"  was  as  necessary  to  the  occupant,  as 
possession  of  the  soil. 

In  those  countries  where  the  drought  is  exces^sive  and 
rains  are  seldom  to  be  depended  on,  water  is  led  on  to  the 
fields  containing  all  the  cuhivated  crops,  and  is  made  subser- 
vient to  the  growth  of  each.  But  in  the  United  States  and  in 
the  middle  and  northern  part  of  Europe,  where  the  crops 
oixlinarily  attain  a  satisfactory  size  without  its  aid,  irrigation 
is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  grass  or  meadow  lands. 

All  waters  are  suitable  for  this  purpose  excepting  such  a^ 
contain  an  excess  of  some  mineral  substances,  that  are  dele- 
terious to  vegetable  life.  Such  are  the  drainage  from  peat 
swamps,  from  salimi  and  mineral  springs,  and  from  ore  beds 
of  various  kinds ;  and  those  are  most  frecpient,  in  which  iron 
is  held  in  solution.  Of  the  spring  or  ordinary  river  waters, 
those  are  the  best  which  are  denominated  hard,  and  which 
owe  this  quality  to  the  presence  of  sulphate  or  carbonate  of 
lime,  or  magnesia.  Those  waters  which  are  charged  with 
fertilizing  substances  that  have  been  washed  out  of  soils  by  re- 
cent floods,  are  admirably  suited  to  irrigation.  Dr.  Dana 
estimates  the  quantity  of  salts  (in  sohition)  and  geine  or 
humus,  which  were  borne  sea-ward  past  Lom  ell,  on  the  Mer^* 
rimac  river,  in  1838,  (a  season  of  unusual  freshets,)  as  reach- 
ing the  enormous  amount  of  840,000  tons  —  enough  to  have 


IRRIGATION   AND   DRAINING.  71 

given  a  good  dressing  to  100,000  acres  of  land.  Such  wa. 
ters  as  have  flowed  out  of  the  sewers  of  cities  or  past  slaugh- 
ter-houses and  certain  manufactories,  and  received  the  rich, 
vegetable  food  thereby  afforded,  are  the  most  beneficial  when 
applied  to  vegetation.  Meadows  thus  irrigated  in  the  neigh, 
borhood  of  Edinburgh,  have  rented  by  the  acre,  at  the  large 
sum  of  $250  per  annum.  But  when  none  of  these  can  be 
procured,  pure  spring  water  apparently  destitute  of  any  solu- 
ble matters,  may  be  advantageously  used. 

Besides  its  drainage  of  different  matters  from  remote  dis- 
tances, water  freely  obsorbes  the  gases  (carbonic  acid,  oxy- 
gen and  nitrogen,  &c.,)  in  proportions  altogether  different 
from  those  existing  in  the  air,  and  brings  them  to  the  roots 
by  which  they  are  greedily  appropriated,  and  in  its  onward, 
agitated  progress  over  the  field,  it  again  absorbs  them  from 
the  air,  again  to  be  given  up  when  demanded  by  the  roots. 
When  the  water  is  permitted  to  remain  stagnant  on  the  sur- 
face, this  good  effect  ceases  ;  and  so  far  from  its  promoting 
the  growth  of  the  useful  and  cultivated  grasses,  they  speedily 
perish  and  a  race  of  sour  and  worthless  acjuatic  plants  spring 
up  to  supply  their  place. 

Another  and  important  office  that  water  fulfils  in  ministe- 
ring  to  the  growth  of  vegetation,  is  in  disposing  the  soil  to 
those  changes  which  are  essential  to  its  full  maturity. 
Gypsum  requires  460,  and  lime  778  times  its  bulk  of  water 
at  60°  to  dissolve  them.  Others  among  the  mineral  consti- 
tuents of  plants,  also  require  the  presence  of  large  quantities 
of  water  to  fit  them  for  vegetable  assimilation. 

Time  for  applying  Water  to  Meadows. — In  those 
regions  where  the  winters  are  not  severe,  water  may  be  kept 
in  the  fields  during  the  entire  season  of  frosts.  This  prevents 
its  access  to  the  ground,  and  on  the  approach  of  warm  wea- 
ther  the  grasses  at  once  start  into  life,  and  give  an  early  and 
abundant.  But  in  general,  this  system  cannot  be  success- 
fully practiced.  The  water  is  admitted  at  proper  intervals, 
freely  during  the  spring  and  early  part  of  the  summer  when 
vegetation  is  either  just  commencing  or  going  forward 
rapidly.  It  is  sufficient  to  flood  the  surface  thoroughly,  and 
then  shut  oft' the  water  for  a  time.  In  very  dry  weather  this 
may  be  done  with  advantage  every  night.  Continued  water- 
ing under  a  brjght  sun,  is  an  unnatural  condition  with  up- 
land grasses,  and  could  never  be  long  continued  without 
proving  fatal  to  them.  Neither  should  the  water  be  applied 
after  the  grasses  have  commenced  ripening.     Nature  is  the 


Tp  AMERICAN    AGBICULXURB. 

proper  guide  in  tliis,  as  in  most  of  the  operations  of  the 
farmer ;  and  it  will  be  seen  how  careful  she  is  in  ordinary 
seasons,  to  provide  an  affluence  of  rains  for  the  commence- 
ment of  vegetation,  while  she  as  carefully  withholds  them 
when  it  approaches  maturity.  After  the  grass  is  cut,  the 
water  may  be  again  let  on  to  flood  the  meadows.  Pastures 
may  be  irrigated  at  proper  intervals,  throughout  the  year. 

The  manner  of  irrigating. — This  must  depend  on  the 
situation  of  the  surface  and  the  supply  of  water.  Sometimes 
reservoirs  are  made  for  its  reception  from  rains  or  inunda- 
tions, and  sometimes  they  are  collected  at  vast  expense  from 
springs  found  by  deep  excavations,  and  led  out  by  extensive 
subterraneous  ditching.  The  usual  source  of  supply  however, 
is  from  streams  or  rivulets,  or  copious  springs  which  dis- 
charge their  water  on  elevated  ground.  The  former  are 
dammed  up  to  turn  the  water  into  ditches  or  aqueducts, 
through  which  it  is  conducted  to  the  fields  where  it  is  divided 
into  smaller  rills  till  it  finally  disappears.  When  it  is  desira- 
ble to  bring  more  water  on  to  meadows  than  is  required 
for  saturating  the  ground,  and  its  escape  to  fields  belcivv  is  to 
be  avoided,  other  ditches  should  be  made  on  the  lower  sides, 
to  arrest  and  convey  away  the  surplus  water. 

The  advantages  of  irrigation  are  so  manifest,  that  they 
should  never  be  neglected  when  the  means  for  securing  them 
are  within  economical  reach.  To  determine  what  economy 
in  this  case  is,  we  have  to  estimate  from  careful  experiment, 
the  equivalent  needed  in  annual  dressing  with  manures  to 
produce  the  same  amount  of  grass  as  would  be  gained  byiiTi- 
gation ;  and  to  offset  the  cost  of  the  manure,  we  must  reckon 
the  interest  on  the  permanent  fixtures  of  dam,  sluices,  &c., 
and  the  annual  expense  of  attention  and  repair. 

The  quality  of  grass  from  irrigated  meadmos  is  but  slightly 
infrior  to  to  that  grown  upon  dry  soils  ;  and  for  pasturage  it 
is  found  that  animals  do  better  in  dry  seasons  upon  the  former, 
and  in  wet  upon  the  latter.  In  Europe,  where  the  disease  in 
common,  sheep  arc  more  liable  to  rot  upon  irrigated  and 
nuii*shy  lands,  than  on  such  as  are  free  from  excessive 
moisture. 

The  Kind  or  Soils  suited  to  Irkigation. — Light  porous 
soils,  and  particularly  gravels  and  sands,  are  the  most  bene- 
filed  by  irrigation.  Tenacious  and  clay  soils  arc  but  slightly 
improved  by  it  unless  first  made  porous  by  underdrainin^'. 
It  is  not  only  important  that  water  be  brought  on  to  the  ground, 


IRRIGATION   AND    DRAINING.  73 

but  it  should  pass  off  immediately  atler  accomplishing  the  ob- 
jects  sought. 

The  increase  from  the  application  of  water  is  sometimes 
fourfold,  when  the  soil,  the  season  and  the  water  are  all  favor- 
able, and  it  is  seldom  less  than  doubled.  Many  fields  which 
in  their  natural  condition,  scarcely  yield  a  bite  of  grass  for 
cattle,  when  thoroughly  irrigated,  will  give  a  good  growth  for 
years,  and  without  the  aid  of  any  manures. 

UNDER   DRAINING    HEAVY    AND    TENACIOUS    CLAY 
LANDS. 

The  advancement  of  agriculture  in  this  country  during 
the  few  last  years,  the  high  price  of  farming  lands  and  their 
products  within  convenient  distances  of  our  larger  markets, 
justify  the  commencement  of  an  intelligent  system  of  drain- 
ing on  such  lands  as  require  it.  This  system  has  for  many 
years  been  introduced  and  largely  practiced  in  England  and 
Scotland,  and  has  resulted  in  the  most  signal  success.  The 
plan  first  adopted  was,  to  excavate  the  land  in  parallel  lines 
at  intervals  of  16  to  25  feet,  and  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  feet, 
forming  a  slightly  inclined  plane  on  the  bottom,  which  was 
from  3  to  6  inches  wide  and  gradually  enlarging  as  it 
approached  the  surface.  The  narrowest  drains  were  arched 
with  inverted  turf  and  clay,  and  so  high  as  to  allow  of  the 
requisite  space  at  the  bottom  for  the  escape  of  whatever 
water  might  filter  through  the  soil.  Others  were  formed 
with  continuous  arched  tiles  laid  on  a  sole^  (a  flat  tile  of  the 
same  material,)  or  a  board  placed  on  the  bottom  forming  an 
uninterrupted  conductor.  Larger  ditches  were  filled  with 
rubble-stone  (and  in  some  instances  brush,)  to  a  sufficient 
depth,  and  then  covered  with  soil.  In  all  cases  the 
smaller  ones  communicated  by  their  outlets  with  a  large 
open  drain  which  led  the  water  from  the  field.  These  drains 
were  always  below  the  reach  of  the  plow,  thus  leaving  the 
whole  surface  of  the  lands  free  from  any  obstruction  to  culti- 
vation. Two  recent  improvements  have  been  introduced 
which  materially  diminish  the  expense  while  they  enhance 
the  benefits  of  the  system.  They  consist  in  sinking  the 
drain  to  4  feet  and  using  baked  clay  or  tile  pipes  H  to  2 
inches  in  diameter,  and  12  to  18  inches  in  length,  connected 
by  allowing  the  descending  end  to  enter  the  next  below  it 
as  a  socket  or  by  placing  the  ends  close  to  each  other.  The 
trifling  opening  at  each  joint,  with  small  holes  perforating 
the  top  of  the  tiles,  is  found  to  be  sufficient  to  admit  all  the 
C 


7*4  AMEBICAN    AGHICUlTtTftK. 

water  which  falls  into  the  drain  ;  while  the  increased  depth 
at  which  the  drainage  takes  place,  draws  the  water  from  a 
much  greater  distance.  With  the  depth  indicated,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  drains  instead  of  being  required  once  in 
16  to  25  feet,  may  be  placed  at  intervals  of  40  to  50,  and 
accomplish  the  object  with  equal  success,  and  in  less  time. 
The  expense  of  the  former  plan  was  from  $20  to  $30  per 
acre,  while  the  last  is  only  from  $12  to  $18. 

The  advantages  of  under  draining  are  numerous  and 
important.  They  take  away  all  the  surplus  water  which 
exists  in  heavy  or  tenacious  soils,  which  in  wet  seasons  are  a 
serious  impediment  to  the  successful  growth  and  perfection 
of  vegetation ;  thus  always  ensuring  a  full  crop  when  fre- 
quently  not  one-fourth  of  a  crop  is  matured  on  similar 
undrained  soils.  They  allow  of  early  cultivation  in  spring 
and  late  in  autumn,  by  furnishing  a  dry,  warm  soil,  which 
would  not  admit  of  cultivation  except  in  the  warm  part  of 
the  season  ;  thus  enabling  the  farmer  to  grow  a  greater  vari- 
ety of  products  where  only  a  few  were  adapted  to  the  soil 
before,  and  to  these  it  gave  several  weeks'  additional  growth. 
It  saves  all  the  trouble  and  waste  of  surface  drains  and  open 
furrows,  which  require  that  much  of  the  land  be  left  almost 
in  an  unproductive  state,  to  serve  as  conductors  of  the  sur- 
plus water.  The  rains  falling  on  the  convex  surfaces  of 
the  lands,  run  off  rapidly  into  the  furrows,  and  not  only 
prevent  the  benefit  to  the  soil  which  would  result  from  its 
absorption,  but  they  carry  with  them  much  of  the  fine  soil, 
which  is  thus  allowed  to  waste. 

Rainwater  is  charged  with  some  of  the  most  unportant 
elements  of  nutrition  to  plants,  and  especially  contains  con- 
siderable proportions  of  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia.  If 
these  be  permitted  to  percolate  through  the  soil,  the  roots  of 
the  plants,  or  in  their  absence,  the  elements  of  the  soil  itself 
absorb  and  form  permanent  combinations  with  them.  Air 
also  holds  vegetable  food  and  it  is  necessary  that  this  should 
penetrate  through  every  portion  of  the  soil  where  the  fibres 
of  the  roots  exist.  Soils  which  are  saturated  with  water  do 
not  admit  of  any  air,  unless  the  small  proportion  combined 
with  the  water  ;  and  from  all  such  this  vital  adjunct  of  vege- 
tation  is  excluded.  The  porosity  of  the  land  thus  secured, 
facilitates  the  admission  and  escape  of  heat,  which  last  con- 
dition is  of  the  utmost  consequence  in  promoting  the  deposi- 
tion of  dews.  {. 


IRRIGATION    AND  DRAINING.  76 

The  dense  mass  of  saturated  soil  is  impervious  to  air  and 
remains  cold  and  clammy.  By  draining  it  below  the  soil, 
the  warm  rains  penetrate  the  entire  mass,  and  there  diffuse 
their  genial  temperature  through  tlie  roots.  Immediately 
pressing  alter  these,  the  warm  air  rushes  in  and  supplies  its 
portion  of  augmented  heat  to  the  land.  Porous  soils  thus 
readily  imbibe  heat,  and  they  as  readily  part  with  it ;  every 
portion  of  their  own  suifaces  radiating  it  when  the  air  in 
contact  with  them  is  below  their  own  temperature.  This 
condition  is  precisely  what  is  adapted  to  secure  the 
deposit  of  the  dews,  so  refreshing,  and  during  a  season 
of  drought,  so  indispensable  to  tiie  progress  of  vegetation. 
Dew  can  only  be  found  on  surfaces  which  are  below  the 
temperature  of  the  svuTounding  air,  and  rapid  radiation  of 
the  heat  imbibed  during  the  warmth  of  a  summer's  day,  is 
necessary  to  secure  it  in  sufficient  profusion  for  the  demands 
of  luxuriant  vegetation  in  the   absence  of  frequent  showers. 

An  insensible  deposit  of  moisture  precisely  analogous  to 
dew,  is  constantly  going  forward  in  deep,  rich,  porous  soils. 
Wherever  the  air  penetrates  them  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  the  soils  themselves  possess,  it  not  only  imparts  to  them 
a  portion  of  its  excess  of  heat,  but  with  it  also,  so  much  of 
its  combined  moisture  as  its  thus  lessened  capacity  for  retain- 
ing latent  heat  compels  it  to  relinquish.  To  the  reflecting 
mind  imbued  with  even  the  first  principles  of  science,  these 
considerations  will  be  justly  deemed  as  of  the  highest  conse- 
quence to  the  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth  and  full  develop- 
ment of  vegetable  life. 

Another  essential  benefit  derivable  from  drained  lands, 
consists  in  the  advantageous  use  which  can  be  made  of  the 
subsoil  plow.  If  there  be  no  escape  for  the  moisture  which 
may  have  settled  below  the  surface,  the  subsoil  plow  has 
been  found  to  be  injurious  rather  than  beneficial.  By  loosen- 
ing the  earth  it  admits  a  larger  deposit  of  water,  which 
requires  a  longer  time  for  evaporation  and  insensible  drainage 
to  discharge.  When  the  water  escapes  freely,  the  use  of  the 
subsoil  plow  is  attended  with  the  best  results.  The  broken 
earth  thus  pulverized  to  a  much  greater  depth  and  incorpora- 
ted with  the  descending  particles  of  vegetable  sustenance 
affords  an  enlarged  range  for  the  roots  of  plants,  and  in  pro- 
portion to  its  extent,  furnishes  them  with  additional  means  of 
growth.  The  farmer  thus  has  a  means  of  augmenting  his 
soil  and  its  capacity  for  production  wholly  independent  of 
increasing  his  superficial  acres;  for  with  many  crops  it  mat- 


76  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUKE. 

ters  not  in  the  quantity  of  their  production,  whether  he  owns 
and  cultivates  100  acres  of  soil,  one  foot  deep,  or  200  acres 
of  soil,  half  a  foot  in  depth.  With  the  latter  however,  he 
has  to  provide  twice  the  capital  in  the  first  purchase,  is  at 
twice  the  cost  in  fencing,  planting  and  tillage,  and  pays 
twice  the  taxes.  The  underdrained  and  subsoiled  fields  have 
the  further  advantage  of  security  and  steady  development 
in  seasons  of  drought,  as  they  derive  their  moisture  from 
greater  depths  which  are  frequently  unaffected  by  the  parch- 
ing heat.  This  secures  to  them  a  large  yield  while  all 
around  is  parched  and  withered.* 

A  more  enlarged  and  general,  or  what  may  justly  ])e 
termed  a  philanthropic  view  of  this  system,  will  readily  detect 
considerations  of  great  moment,  in  the  general  healthfulness 
of  climate  which  Avould  result  from  the  drainage  of  large 
areas,  which  are  now  saturated,  or  in  many  instances  covered 
with  stagnant  waters,  and  which  are  suliered  to  pollute  the 
atmosphere  by  their  pestilent  exhalations. 

SPRING  AND  SWAMP  DRAINING. 

Springs  are  sometimes  discovered  not  by  a  tree  or  open 
discharge  of  their  water,  but  in  extensive  plats  of  wet,  boggy 
lands,  which  are  of  no  farther  use  than  to  mire  the  cattle  and 
bear  a  small  quantity  of  inferior  bog  hay.  These  springs 
should  be  sought  at  the  highest  point  where  the  ground 
appears  moistened  and  led  away  to  a  ravine  or  rivulet,  by  a 
drain  sutliciently  deep  to  prevent  the  escape  of  any  of  the 
water  into  the  adjacent  soil ;  unless  as  it  sometimes  happens, 
the  position  and  quality  of  water  are  suited  to  irrigation, 
when  it  may  be  conducted  over  the  field  for  that  purpose. 

iSwamps  and  Peat  beds  occur  frequently  in  a  hilly  country. 
These  are  low  level,  wet  lands,  whose  constant  saturation 
with  water  prevents  their  cultivation  with  any  useful  plants. 
The  first  object  in  effecting  their  improvement,  is  to  find  an 
outlet  tor  the  escape  of  the  water  to  a  depth  of  3  to  Tj  feet 
below  the  surface,  according  to  tlie  area  to  be  reclaimed  ; 
the  greatest  depth  above  specified  being  frecpiently  necessary 
to  the  eflectual  drainage  at  all  times,  of  an  extended  surface. 
If  the  water  in  the  swamp  has  its  origin  in  numerous  springs 
from  the  adjoining  hills,  a  ditch  should  be  dug  around  the 
entire  outer  edge  of  it  where  it  meets  the  ascending  land.     If 

*The  experienced  reader  will  sometimes  notice  the  jsuiiie  ideas  repeated  undei, 
different  heads.     He  must  bear  in  mind  that  this  work  is  intended  fur  I  camera  w 
and  that  it  is  of  more  consrquencc  thoroughly  to  impress  their  minds  with  impor- 
tant principles,  than  to  study  brevity  in  communicating  them. 


MECHANICAL    DIVISION    OF    SOILS.  7T 

the  water  be  derived  from  a  rivulet,  a  broad  ditch  should  be 
made  as  direct  as  possible  from  its  entrance  to  its  outlet,  and 
deep  enough  to  lead  off  all  the  water.  If  these  are  found 
insufficient,  additional  ones  may  be  made  wherever  required. 


CHAPTER  V. 


MECHANICAL  DIVISION  OF  SOILS. 
SPADING. 

After  selecting  a  proper  soil,  and  placing  it  in  a  suita- 
ble condition,  as  to  manuring,  draining  &c.  the  next  most 
important  consideration  is  the  further  preparation  of  the  land 
for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  In  small  patches  of  highly 
cultivated  land,  spading  is  resorted  to  for  breaking  up  and 
pulverizing  the  ground  more  effectually  than  can  be  done 
with  the  plow.  This  is  the  case  with  many  of  the  market 
gardens  in  the  neighborhood  of  our  large  cities,  and  Avith 
large  portions  of  Holland,  Flanders  and  other  countries  of 
Europe.  It  is  even  contended  by  many  highly  intelligent 
and  practical  farmers  in  Great  Britain,  where  labor  is  about 
half  and  land  and  agricultural  products  nearly  twice  the 
the  average  price  with  U!=,  that  spade  husbandry  can  be 
adopted  for  general  tillage  crops  with  decided  advantage  to 
the  farmer.  However  this  may  be  abroad,  it  is  certain  it 
cannot  be  practised  in  this  country  to  any  extent  until  some 
very  remote  period. 

PLOWING. 

This  is  the  most  important  of  the  mechanical  operations  of 
the  farm.  The  time,  the  depth  and  the  manner  of  plowing 
must  depend  on  the  crops  to  be  raised,  the  fertility  and  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  other  circumstances. 

Plowing  clay  lands.  —  Whenever  practicable  these 
should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  for  planting  and  sowing  the 
ensuing  spring.  The  tenacity  of  the  soil  may  thus  be  tem- 
porarily broken  up  by  the  winter  frosts,  its  particles  more 
thoroughly  separated,  and  the  whole  mass  reduced  to  a  finer 
tilth  than   can   possibly  be  effected  in  any  other  manner. 


78  AMERICAN    AGRICULTTJRF. 

There  is  a  still  further  and  important  advantage  from  this 
practice  which  ensues  from  the  attraction  existing  between 
the  clay  and  those  gases  that  arc  furnished  from  the  atmos- 
phere, snow,  rains  and  dews.  In  consequence  of  being  thus 
thrown  up  and  coming  in  contact  with  them,  it  seizes  upon 
the  ammonia  and  carbonic  and  nitric  acids  which  are  in  the 
air,  and  holds  them  for  the  future  use  of  the  crops;  while 
their  great  affinity  for  manures  effectually  prevents  the  waste 
of  such  as  are  in  it. 

The  furrows  of  clay  soils  should  be  turned  over  so  as  to  lap 
on  the  preceding  and  lie  at  an  angle  of  45** ;  and  for  this 
purpose  the  depth  of  the  furrow  slice  should  be  about  two 
thirds  its  width.  Thus  a  furrow  6  inches  deep  should  be 
about  9  inches  wide,  or  if  8  inches  deep,  it  should  be  12 
inches  wide.  This  will  allow  of  the  furrows  lying  regularly 
and  evenly,  and  in  the  proper  position  for  the  drainage  of 
the  soil,  the  free  circulation  of  air,  and  the  most  efficient  ac- 
tion of  frosts  which  in  this  way  have  access  to  every  side  of 
them.  Land  thus  thrown  up  is  found  to  be  finely  pulverized 
after  the  frosts  leave  it,  and  it  is  comparatively  dry  and 
ready  for  use  some  time  earlier  than  such  as  is  not  plowed 
till  spring.  For  sowing,  land  plowed  in  this  manner  requires 
no  additional  plowing,  but  it  is  better  fitted  for  the  reception 
of  seed  than  it  can  be  by  any  further  operation,  unless  by  a 
slight  harrowing  if  too  rough.  The  different  kinds  of  grain 
or  peas  may  be  dibbled  in  or  sown  directly  upon  the  surface 
and  covered  by  the  harrow ;  and  if  sown  very  early,  the 
grass  and  clover  seeds  require  no  covering,  but  find  thcur  best 
position  in  the  slight  depressions  which  are  every  where 
made  by  the  frost,  and  which  the  subsequent  rains  and  winds 
till  up  and  cover  sufficii^ntly  to  secure  a  certain  growth. 
When  a  field  sis  intended  for  planting  and  is  thus  plowed  in 
the  preceeding  autumn,  in  some  instances,  and  especially 
when  the  soil  is  full  of  vegetable  manures,  as  from  a  rich 
green  sward,  a  single  furrow  where  the  seed  is  to  be  drop- 
ped, is  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  plowed  in  the  spring. 

If  the  land  has  been  previously  cultivated,  (not  in  sward,) 
and  is  designed  for  planting,  a  stiff  clay  is  sometimes  ridged 
up  by  turning  a  double  furrow,  one  on  each  side  and  so  close 
as  partially  to  lap  upon  a  narrow  and  unbroken  surface,  thus 
leaving  the  greatest  elevations  and  depressions  which  can^ 
conveniently  be  made  with  the  plow.  The  frost  and  air  by 
this  means,  have  a  greater  suiface  to  act  upon  than  is  affor- 
ded  by  thorough  plowing,  unless  it  *  be  in  a  firm  sod,  which 


MECHANICAL   DIVISION   OP  BOILS.  79 

maintains  its  position  without  crumblinjij.  The  advantage  of 
a  dry  surface  and  early  working  are  equally  secured  by  this 
latter  method  ;  and  to  prepare  for  planting,  the  furrows  need 
only  to  be  split  by  running  a  plow  through  their  centre, 
when  they  are  ready  for  the  reception  of  the  seed. 

Plowing  sandy  or  dry  soils. — These  require  flat  plow- 
ing, which  may  be  done  when  they  are  either  quite  wet  or 
dry,  but  never  till  wanted  for  use.  By  exposure  to  heat, 
rains  and  atmospheric  influences  the  light  soluble  manures 
are  exhaled  or  washed  out,  and  they  receive  little  compensa- 
tion for  this  waste  in  any  corresponding  fertility  they  derive 
from  the  atmosphere  in  return.  To  insure  flat  plowing  on 
an  old  sward,  the  depth  of  the  furrow  should  be  about  one- 
half  its  width,  and  the  land  or  ridges  as  wide  as  can  conve- 
niently be  made,  so  as  to  preserve  as  much  uniformity  of 
surface  over  the  whole  field  as  possible. 

Depth  of  plowing. — All  cultivated  plants  are  benefitted 
by  a  deep  permeable  soil,  through  which  their  roots  can 
penetrate  in  search  of  food  ;  and  a  though  depth  of  soil  is  not 
fully  equivalent  to  its  superficial  extension,  it  is  evident  that 
there  must  be  a  great  increase  of  product  fi-om  this  cause. 
For  general  tillage  crops  the  depth  of  soil  may  be  gradually 
augmented  to  about  12  inches,  with  decided  advantage. 
Such  as  are  appropriated  to  gardens  and  horticultural  pur- 
poses may  be  deepened  to  15  and  even  18  inches  to  the 
manifest  profit  of  their  occupants.  But  whatever  is  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  the  plow  ought  to  turn  up  the  entire  mass, 
if  within  its  reach,  and  what  is  beyond  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly broken  up  by  the  subsoil  plow,  and  some  of  it  occa- 
sionally incorporated  with  that  upon  the  surface.  The  sub- 
soil ought  not  to  be  brought  out  of  its  bed  except  in  small 
quantities  to  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  during  the  fall, 
winter  and  spring,  or  in  a  summer  fallow ;  nor  even  then, 
but  with  the  application  of  such  fertilizers  as  are  necessary 
to  put  it  at  once  into  a  productive  condition.  The  depth  of 
the  soil  can  alone  determine  the  depth  of  ploughing ;  and 
when  that  is  too  shallow,  the  gradual  deepening  of  it  should 
be  sought  by  the  use  of  proper  materials  for  improvement 
till  the  object  is  fully  attained.  Two  indifferent  soils  of 
opposite  characters,  as  of  a  stiflT  clay  and  sliding  sand, 
sometimes  occupy  the  relation  of  surface  and  subsoil  towards 
each  other ;  and  when  intimately  mixed  and  subjected  to 
the  meliorating  influence  of  cultivation,  they  will  frequently 
produce  a  soil  of  great  value. 


80  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Cross  Plowing  is  seldom  necessary  except  to  break  up 
tough  sward  or  tenacious  soils ;  and  the  former  is  more  ef- 
fectually subdued  by  one  thorough  plowing  in  which  the 
sod  is  so  placed  that  decomposition  will  rapidly  ensue  ;  and 
the  latter  is  more  certainly  pulverized  by  incorporating  with 
it  such  vegetables,  and  long  or  unfermented  manures  and  the 
like,  as  will  take  the  place  of  the  decaying  sod.  The  pres- 
ence of  these  in  the  soil,  lessens  the  labor  of  cultivation  and 
greatly  increases  the  products. 

Subsoil  Plowing. — This  is  a  practic  of  comparatively 
recent  introduction,  and  it  has  been  attended  w  ith  signal  be- 
nefit from  the  increase  and  certainty  of  the  crop.  It  is  per- 
formed by  subsoil  plows  made  exclusively  for  this  purpose. 
The  objects  to  be  accomplished  are  to  loosen  the  hard  earth 
below  the  reach  of  the  ordinary  plow  and  permit  the  ready 
escape  of  the  water  which  falls  upon  the  surface  ;  the  circu- 
lation of  air;  and  a  more  extended  range  for  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  by  which  they  procure  additional  nourishment,  and 
secure  the  crop  against  drought,  by  penetrating  into  the  re- 
gions of  perpetual  moisture.  When  all  the  circumstances 
are  favorable  to  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow,  an  increase  in 
the  crop  of  20,  30,  and  sometimes  even  50  per  cent,  has  been 
attributed  to  its  operations.  Its  maximum  influence  on  stiff 
soils  is  reached,  only  where  underdraining  has  been  tho- 
roughly carried  out.  Its  benefits  have  been  more  than  doubt- 
ed when  used  in  an  impervious  clay  subsoil,  where  it  makes 
further  room  for  storing  up  stagnant  water  ;  and  it  is  evident 
they  can  only  aggravate  the  faults  of  such  subsoils  as  are  na- 
turally too  loose  and  leachy. 

PLOWS  AND  OTHER  FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 

There  are  plows  for  almost  every  situation  and  soil,  in  addi- 
tion to  several  varieties  which  are  exclusively  used  for  the  sub- 
soil.  Some  are  for  heavy  lands  and  some  for  light ;  some 
for  stony  soils,  others  for  such  as  are  full  of  roots  ;  while  still 
another  class  are  expressly  made  for  breaking  up  the  hither- 
to untilled  prairies  of  the  west.  Some  are  adapted  to  deep 
and  some  to  shallow  plowing ;  and  some  are  for  plowing 
around  a  hill  and  throwing  the  furrows  either  up  or  down,  or 
both  ways  alternately ;  others  again  throw  the  soil  on  both 
sides,  and  are  used  for  plowing  between  the  rows  of  com  or  V 
roots.  Every*  farm  should  be  supplied  with  such  plows  as 
are  entirely  adapted  to  the  different  opei-ations  required. 


MECHANICAL    DIVISION  OF  SOILS.  81 

The  former  will  find  in  the  best  agricultural  ware-houses, 
all  the  implements  necessary  to  his  operations,  with  such  de- 
scriptions as  will  enable  him  to  judge  of  their  merits.  Great 
attention  has  been  bestowed  on  this  subject  for  several  years 
by  skilful  and  intelligent  persons,  and  great  success  has  fol- 
lowed their  eftbrts.  The  United  States  may  safely  challenge 
the  world  to  exhibit  better  specimens  of  farming  tools  than 
she  now  furnishes,  and  her  course  is  still  one  of  improve- 
ment. There  are  numerdus  competitors  for  public  favor  in 
every  description  of  farm  implements ;  and  an  intelligent 
farmer  cannot  fail  to  select  such  as  are  best  suited  to  his  own 
situation  and  purposes. 

The  best  only  sliould  he  used. — There  has  been  a  '•  penny 
wise  and  pound  foolish"  policy  adopted  by  many  farmers  in 
their  neglect  or  refusal  to  supply  themselves  with  good  tools 
to  work  with.  They  thus  save  a  few  shillings  in  the  first 
outlay,  but  frequently  lose  ten  times  as  much  by  the  use  of 
indifferent  ones  in  the  waste  of  labor  and  the  inefiiciency  of 
their  operations.  A  farmer  should  estimate  the  value  of  his 
own  and  his  laborer's  time  as  well  as  that  of  his  teams,  by 
dollars  and  cents  ;  and  if  it  requires  one  third,  one  tenth  or 
even  one  hundredth  more  of  either  to  accomplish  a  given  ob- 
ject  with  one  instrument  than  with  another,  he  should  before 
buying  one  of  inferior  quality,  carefully  compute  the  amount 
his  false  economy  in  the  purchase  will  cost  him  before  he  has 
done  with  it.  Poor  men  or  those  who  wish  to  thrive,  can  ill 
afford  the  extravagance  of  buying  inferior  tools  at  however 
low  a  price.  The  best  are  always  the  cheapest ;  not  those 
of  high  or  extravagant  finish,  or  in  any  respect  unnecessarily 
costly ;  but  such  as  are  plain  and  substantial,  made  on  the 
best  principles  and  of  the  most  durable  materials.  To  no 
tools  do  these  remarks  apply  with  so  much  force  as  to  plow^s. 
The  improvements  in  these  have  been  greater  than  in  any 
other  instruments,  the  best  saving  fully  one  half  the  labor  for- 
merly bestowed  in  accomplishing  the  same  work. 

HARROWING. 

The  object  of  the  harrow  is  three  fold ;  to  pulverise  the 
land,  to  cover  the  seed,  and  to  extirpate  weeds.  Unless  the 
land  be  very  light  and  sandy,  the  operation  should  never  be 
performed  for  either  object,  except  when  sufficiently  dry  to 
allow  of  the  crumbling  down  into  a  fine  mellow  surface  un- 
der the  action  of  the  harrow.  There  are  several  varieties  of 
harrows  in  use ;  the  tri  angular  and  the  square,  both  some- 


82  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

times  hinged  and  sometimes  double;  with  long  teeth  and 
with  short  ones,  some  thickly  set  together,  and  some  far 
apart.  For  pulverising  iirmly  sodded  or  stiiT  clay  lands,  a 
heavy,  compact  harrow  is  required,  with  strong  teeth  suffi- 
ciently spread ;  and  for  lighter  lands,  or  for  covering  seed, 
the  more  expanded  harrow,  with  numerous,  small  and  thick- 
ly  set  teeth.  To  pulverise  soil,  the  harrow  should  move  as 
quickly  as  possible,  so  as  to  strike  the  lumps  forcibly,  and 
knock  them  to  pieces ;  and  for  this  purpose  an  active  team  is 
required.  When  the  land  sinks  much  under  the  pressure  of 
the  horses  feet,  light  animals  as  mules  or  ponies  are  prefera- 
ble. 

THE    ROLLER 

Is  an  importnnt  implement  for  many  fields.  It  is  always 
useful  for  pulverizing  the  soil,  which  it  does  by  breaking 
down  such  clods  and  lumps  as  escape  the  Iiarrow,  and  thus 
renders  the  field  smooth  for  the  scythe  or  cradle  4  and  it  is 
equally  so  on  meadows  which  have  become  uneven  from 
the  influence  of  frost,  ant-hills,  or  other  causes.  It  is  ser- 
viceable in  covering  seed  by  pressing  the  earth  firmly 
around  it ;  which  thus  secures  moisture  enough  for  germi- 
nation. But  hs  greatest  benefit  is  with  such  sandy  soils 
as  are  not  sufficiently  compact  to  hold  the  roots  of 
plants  firmly  and  retain  a  suitable  moisture.  With  these  it 
is  invaluable,  and  the  proper  use  of  the  roller  has  in  some 
instances  doubled  the  product.  Its  effect  is  similar  to  that 
produced  by  the  frequent  treading  in  a  foot-path  ;  and  the 
observing  farmer  will  not  have  failed  to  notice  the  single 
thread  of  thick  green-sward  which  marks  its  course  over  an 
otherwise  almost  barren  field  of  sand  or  loose  gravel.  The 
thickly  woven  emerald  net-work  that  indicates  the  sheep- 
walks,  on  similar  soils,  is  principally  due  to  the  same 
cause. 

Rollers  are  variously  constructed.  The  simplest  form  is 
a  single  wooden  shaft  with  gudgeons  at  each  end,  which  rest 
in  a  square  frame  made  by  fastening  four  joists  together,  a 
tongue  for  drawing  it  being  placed  in  one  of  its  sides.  A 
box  may  be  attached  to  this  frame  for  the  purpose  of  hold- 
ing stones  and  weeds  picked  up  in  the  field,  and  for  weight- 
ing the  roller  according  to  the  work  required.  When  a 
roller  exceeds  8  or  10  feet  in  length,  it  should  be  divided  ik 
the  middle  and  have  an  iron  axle  pass  through  each  part, 
upon  which  they  revolve,  taking  care  to  diminish  the  fric- 


.MECHANICAL    DIVISION    OP   SOILS.  8B 

lion  at  the  ends  by  a  thick  washer.  The  larger  the  r  oiler 
the  greater  surface  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  ground 
the  more  level  it  leaves  it,  besides  giying  a  much  easier 
draught  to  the  team.  To  accomplish  this  without  too  much 
increase  of  weight,  they  are  frequently  constructed  with 
heads  at  the  ends  and  closely  covered  like  a  drum.  For 
dividing  compact  clay  lumps  or  for  scarifying  meadows, 
they  are  sometimes  made  with  large  numbers  of  short,  stout 
angular  teeth,  which  penetrate  and  crush  the  clods,  and  tear 
up  and  loosen  the  old  turf  and  moss  of  meadows. 

THE    CULTIVATOR 

Has  a  light  frame  in  the  form  of  a  triangular  or  wedge- 
harrow  with  handles  behind  like  those  of  a  plow,  and  with 
several  small  iron  teeth  in  the  irame,  somewhat  resembling 
a  double  share  plow.  They  are  of  various  sizes,  slightly 
differing  in  construction,  and  are  of  great  utility  in  stirring 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  destroying  weeds. 

1'  H  E    DRILL    BARROW 

Is  useful  for  dibbling  in  seeds,  and  when  the  surface  is 
mellow  it  will  open  the  furrows  for  the  reception  of  the 
seed,  and  drop,  cover  and  roll  the  earth  firmly  over  it.  The 
smaller  ones  are  trundled  along  like  a  wheelbarrow,  by  hand; 
and  the  larger  for  field  planting,  Ijaving  several  fixtures  for 
drilling,  are  drawn  by  a  horse.  They  are  suited  to  the 
smaller  seeds,  and  some  have  been  made  to  plant  corn, 
beans  and  peas  successfully. 

SURFACE  OR  SHOVEL  PLOWS. 
These  are  a  cheap,  light  instrument,  much  used  in  Eng- 
land, and  to  some'  extent  in  this  country,  for  paring  the 
stubble  and  grass  roots  on  the  surfaces  of  old  meadows. 
These  are  raked  together  into  heaps,  and  with  whatever 
addition  there  may  be  of  earth  or  clay  are  burnt,  and  the 
ashes  and  roasted  earth  scattered  over  the  soil.  There  is 
an  apparent  objection  to  this  practice  in  the  expulsion  of 
the  carbon  and  nitrogen  stored  up  in  the  plants  and  in  the 
waste  of  the  coarse  material  of  the  decaying  vegetables 
which  is  so  useful  in  efiedlng  the  salutary  mechanical  divi- 
sions of  clay  mils.  But  by  a  reference  to  what  has  been 
said  on  the  efficiency  of  burnt  clay  or  broken  brick,  their 
great  utility  as  fertilizers  will  be  seen.  This  and  the  ash 
of  the  plants  remain,  and  both  are  useful  in  quickening  the 


84  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

action  of  soils  and  accelerating  those  changes  so  beneficial 
to  vegetation  ;  and  even  the  re-absorption  of  the  atmosphe- 
ric gases,  it  is  probable  will  more  than  compensate  for  their 
equivalents  expelled  in  burning.  The  effect  is  further 
salutary  in  destroying  grubs,  insects  and  their  larvse,  and 
the  seeds  of  noxious  weeds. 


CHAPTER    YJ. 


THE  GRASSES,  CLOVERS,  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES. 

The  cyrder  designated  by  naturalists  as  Gramincef  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  universally  diffused  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  It  is  also  the  most  important  to  man  and  to  all 
the  different  tribes  of  graminiverous  animals.  Tl  includes  not 
only  what  are  usually  cultivated  as  grasses,  but  also  rice, 
millet,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  maize,  sugar  cane,  broom 
corn,  the  wild  cane  and  the  bamboos  sometimes  reaching  60 
feet  in  height.  They  are  universally  characterized  as  hav- 
ing a  cylindrical  stem  ;  hollow  or  sometimes  as  in  the  sugar 
cane  and  bamboos,  filled  with  a  pith-like  substance,  with 
solid  joints  and  alternate  leaves  originating  at  each  joint, 
surrounding  the  stem  at  their  base  and  forming  a  sheath  ' 
upwards  of  greater  or  less  extent;  and  the  flowers  and  seed  are 
protected  with  a  firm  straw-like  covering,  which  is  the  chaff 
in  the  grains  and  grass  seeds,  and  the  husk  in  Indian  corn. 
They  yield  large  proportions  of  sugar,  starch  and  fatty  mnt- 
ter,  besides  tliose  peculiarly  animal  products,  albumen  and 
fibrine,  not  only  in  the  seeds,  but  also  and  especially  before 
the  latter  are  fully  matured,  in  the  stems,  joints  and  leaves. 
These  qualities  give  to  them  the  great  value  which  they 
possess  in  agriculture. 

Of  the  grasses  cultivated  for  the  use  of  animals  in  England,  J^ 
there  are  said  to  be  no  less  than  200  varieties  ;  while  in  the 
occupied  portion  of  this  country,  embracing  an  indefinitely 


THE    GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  85 

greater  variety  of  latitude,  climate  and  situation,  we  hardly 
cultivate  twenty.  The  number  and  excellence  of  our  natu- 
ral grasses  are  probably  unsurpassed  in  any  quarter  of  the 
globe,  for  a  similar  extent  of  country:  but  this  isadepartr 
ment  of  our  natural  history  hitherto  but  partially  explored, 
and  we  are  left  mostly  to  conjecture  as  to  their  numbers  and 
comparative  quality.  From  the  health  and  thrift  of  the 
wild  animals,  the  buffalo,  deer,  &c.,  as  well  as  the  rapid 
growth  and  fine  condition  of  our  domestic  animals  when 
permitted  to  range  over  the  prairies,  or  through  the  natural 
marshes  and  woods  in  every  season  of  the  year,  even  during 
the  severe  and  protracted  winters  in  latitude  44°  north,*  the 
superior  richness  and  enduringness  of  our  natural  grasses, 
may  be  inferred.  We  shall  limit  ourselves  mostly  to  those 
which  have  been  introduced,  and  successfully  cultivated  in 
this  country. 

TiiMOTHY,  Cat's  Tail  or  Herd's  grass  (Phleum  pra- 
tense.) — We  are  inclined  to  place  the  Timothy  first  in  the 
list  of  the  grasses.  It  is  indigenous  to  this  country  and 
flourishes  in  all  soils  except  such  as  are  wet,  too  light,  dry 
or  sandy,  and  is  found  in  perfection  on  the  rich  clays  and 
clay  loams  which  lie  between  40*^  and  44°  north  latitude.  It 
is  a  perennial,  easy  of  cultivation,  hardy  and  of  luxuriant 
growth,  and  on  its  favorite  soil,  yields  from  1  h  to  2  tons  of  hay 
per  acre  at  one  cutting.  Sinclair  estimates  its  value  for  hay 
when  in  seed  to  be  double  that  cut  in  flower.  From  its 
increased  value  w^hen  ripe  it  is  cut  late,  and  in  consequence 
of  the  exhaustion  from  maturing  its  seed,  it  produces  but 
little  aftermath  or  rowen.  It  vegetates  early  in  the  spring, 
and  when  pastured,  yields  abundantly  throughout  the  season. 
Both  the  grass  and  hay  are  highly  relished  by  cattle,  sheep 
and  horses  ;  and  its  nutritive  quality,  in  the  opinion  of  prac- 
tical men,  stands  decidedly  before  any  other.  It  is  also  a 
valuable  crop  for  seed,  an  acre  of  prime  grass  yielding  from 

'  The  writer  had  seen  large  droves  of  the  French  and  Indian  ponies  come  into 
the  settlements  about  Green  Bay  and  the  Fox  river  in  Wisconsin,  in  the  spring,  in 
good  working  condition,  after  wintering  on  the  natural  grasses  of  that  region.  The 
pony  grass  may  perhaps  be  mentioned  as  one  of  the  principal  of  the  winter  grasses 
in  that  region.  It  grows  in  close,  thick,  elevated  tufts,  and  continues  green  all 
winter,  and  is  easily  detected  by  animals  uhder  the  snow,  by  the  little  hummocks 
which  everywhere  indent  its  surface.  The  wild  rice  which  lines  the  still,  shallow 
waters  of  the  streams  and  small  inland  lakes  of  many  of  the  Western  States,  atfords 
nutritious  forage  when  green  or  if  early  cut  and  dried;  and  the  grain  which  ia  pro- 
duced in  great  profusion  is  an  exhaustless  store  to  the  Jndians  who  push  into  the 
thickest  of  it,  and  bending  over  the  ripe  heads,  with  two  or  three  strokes  of  the 
paddle  on  the  dry  stalks,  rattle  the  grain  into  their  light  canoes.  The  wild  ducks, 
geese  and  swans  which  yet  frequent  those  waters,  fatten  on  this  grain  throughout 
the  fall  and  winter. 


86  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

15  to  25  bushels  of  clean  seed,  which  is  usually  worth  in 
the  market  from  $1.25  to  $2.00  per  bushel,  and  the  stalks 
and  chaff  that  remain  make  a  useful  fodder  for  most  kinds 
of  stock.  It  may  be  sown  on  wheat  or  rye  in  August  or 
September  or  in  the  spring.  When  sown  alone  or  with 
other  grasses  early  in  the  season  on  a  rich  soil,  it  will  pro- 
duce a  good  crop  the  same  year.  From  its  late  ripening  it 
is  not  advantageously  mixed  with  clover  unless  upon  heavy 
clays  which  hold  back  the  clover.  We  have  tried  it  with 
the  northern  or  mammoth  clover  on  clay,  and  found  the 
latter  though  mostly  in  full  blossom,  still  pushing  out  new 
'  branches  and  buds  when  the  former  was  fit  to  cut.  The 
quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre  depends  something  on  the 
soil  and  its  condition.  Eight  quarts  on  a  fine  mellow  tilth 
is  sufficient,  and  is  equal  to  16  on  a  stiff  clay. 

The  Tall  Fescue  (Festuca  elatior)  would  appear  by  the 
Woburn  experiments  to  yield  more  nutritive  matter  per  acre 
when  cut  in  flower  than  any  other  grass  cut  either  in  flower 
or  seed.  This  is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  and  is  best 
suited  to  a  rich  loam.  It  is  not  extensively  cultivated  in 
this  country. 

Meadow  Fescue  (Festuca  pratensis)  likes  a  boggy  soil, 
bears  well  and  produces  an  early  grass  much  relished  by 
cattle,  either  green  or  cured  as  hay. 

Spiked  Fescue  (F.  loleacea)  is  adapted  to  a  rich  loam, 
and  produces  the  best  of  hay  and  pasture. 

The  Purple  Fescue  {F.  rubra-,)  Sheep's  Fescue  (F. 
ovlna ;)  The  Hard  Fescue  {F.  durimcnla;)  The  Float- 
ing Fescue  {F.  fluitans,)  are  all  indigenous  to  this  country, 
and  good  pasture  grasses. 

Orchard  or  Cock's  Foot  Grass  {Dactylis  glomeraia) 
is  indigenous,  and  for  good  arable  soils  and  especially  for 
such  as  are  shaded,  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  grasses 
grown.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay  before  it  is  ripe,  as  in  seed- 
ing  it  becomes  coarse  and  hard  and  is  less  acceptable  to 
cattle.  It  is  ready  for  the  scythe  with  the  clover,  and  after 
cutting,  it  immediately  springs  up  and  furnishes  several 
crops  of  hay  or  constant  pasturage  throughout  the  season. 
It  should  be  fed  closely  to  secure  a  teniler  succulent  herbage. 
The  seed  is  remarkably  light,  weighing  only  12  or  15  Ibs.^ 
bar  bushel.  Twenty  to  thirty  lbs.  are  usually  sown  upon 
one  acre ;  yet  ten  lbs.  on  finely  prepared  soils  have  been 


THE    GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  R7 

known  to  produce  a  good  sod  over  the  entire  ground.     It 
flourishes  from  Maine  to  Georgia. 

Smooth  Stalked,  Meadow,  Green,  Spear  or  Junk 
Grass,  the  (erroneously  called)  Blue  Grass  op  Kentucky 
(Poa  praiensis)  is  highly  esteemed  for  hay  and  pasture.  Jt 
is  indigenous  and  abounds  through  the  country,  but  does  not 
appear  to  reach  perfection  north  of  the  valley  of  the  Ohio. 
It  is  seen  in  its  glory  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  The 
seed  ripens  in  June  and  falls  upon  the  ground,  where  the 
succeeding  rains  give  it  vitality  and  it  pushes  out  its  long, 
rich  slender  leaves,  two  feet  in  height  which  in  autumn  fall 
over  in  thick  windrows,  matting  the  whole  surface  with 
lucious  herbage.  Upon  these  fieWs  which  have  been  care- 
fully protected  till  the  other  forage  is  exhausted,  the  cattle 
are  turned  and  fatten  through  the  winter.  It  maintains  its 
freshness  and  nutritive  properties  in  spite  of  frost  and  the 
cattle  easily  reach  it  through  the  light  snows  which  fall  in 
thai  climate.  A  warm,  dry  calcareous  soil  seems  to  be  its 
natural  element,  and  it  flourishes  only  in  a  rich  upland. 

The  Roughish  Meadow  Grass  (Poa  trivialis)  has  much 
the  appearance  o^  \\\e poa  pratensis,  but  its  stalk  feels  rough 
to  the  touch  while  the  other  is  smooth.  It  has  the  further 
diflerence  of  preferring  moist  or  wet  loams  or  clay.  It  yields 
well  and  aflbrds  good  hay  and  pasture. 

Tall  Oat  Grass  {Avena  elatio?-)  is  an  early  luxuriant 
grass,  growing  to  the  height  sometimes  of  five  feet.  It 
makes  good  hay  but  is  better  suited  to  pasture.  It  flour- 
ishes in  a  loam  or  clay  soil. 

Meadow  Fox  Tail  (Alopecurus  praiensis)  is  a  highly 
esteemed  grass  in  England  both  for  meadows  and  pasture. 
It  grows  early  and  abundantly,  and  gives  a  large  quantity  of 
aftermath.  It  is  best  suited  to  a  moist  soil,  bog,  clay  or 
loam.     It  is  indigenous  to  the  middle  states. 

Perennial  Rye  Grass  (^Lolimn  perenne)  atsid  Biennial 
AND  Italian  ditto,  are  all  grasses  highly  esteemed  in 
Europe,  but  repeated  trials  in  this  country  have  given  no 
satisfactory  results.  They  yield  indiflerently  with  us,  and 
easily  winter  kill.  Careful  cultivation  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, may  yet  acclimate  and  render  them  useful 
grasses. 

FiORiN  Grass  (Agrostis  stolonifera)  has  been  much  lauded 
in  England  of  late,  but  has  made  little  progress  in  the  esti- 
mation of  American  farmers,  and  probably  with  sufficient 


88  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

reason.  It  is  a  diminutive  grass,  affording  considerable 
nutriment  in  a  condensed  form,  and  is  adapted  to  a  winter 
pasture.  It  grows  on  a  moist  clay  or  boggy  soil  Several 
of  the  florin  family  abound  in  this  country,  among  which  is 
the  squitch,  couch  or  quick  grass. 

The  sweet  scented  Vernal  Grass  {AntJwxanlhum  odo- 
raium,)  is  an  early  valuable  pasture  grass,  which  exhales  that 
delightful  perfume,  so  characteristic  of  much  of  the  eastern 
meadow  hay.  It  is  a  late  as  well  as  early  grass  and  luxuri- 
ates in  a  dry  sandy  loam.  It  affords  two  and  sometimes  three 
crops  in  a  single  season. 

Red  top,  Herds  Grass,  Foul  Meadow,  or  Fine  Bent 
(agrostis  vulgaris,)  is  a  hardy  luxuriant  grass,  loving  a  very 
moist  soil,  and  somewhat  indifferent  as  to  its  texture.  The 
scale  of  its  nutritive  properties  is  put  down  in  the  Woburn 
experiments  at  a  remarkably  low  rate,  being  less  than  one 
fourteenth  of  the  value  per  acre  of  timothy  in  the  seed.  We 
think  there  must  be  an  error  in  this  estimate,  as  it  grows  lux- 
riantly  under  favorable  circumstances  and  is  relished  by  cat- 
tie  ;  but  by  observing  farmers  it  is  seldom  cultivated  where 
the  better  grasses  will  grow. 

Upright  Bent  Grass,  Herds  Grass  or  Foul  Meadow 
{Agrostis  siricta)  is  similar  to  the  foregping,  and  by  some  is 
deemed  only  a  variety. 

Flat  Stalked  Meadow  or  Blue  Grass  (Poa  compressa) 
is  an  early  dwarfish  grass,  which  abounds  in  the  middle  and 
northern  states.  It  is  tenacious  of  its  foothold  wherever  it 
intrudes.  It  possesses  little  merit  as  hay,  but  is  valuable  for 
pasture  affording  as  it  does  a  close  covering  to  the  ground 
and  yielding  much  in  a  small  compass. 

American  or  Swamp  Cock's  Foot  {Dactylis  cynosvroi- 
des)  is  an  indigenous  swamp  grass,  yielding  a  large  amount 
of  grass  or  hay  of  inferior  quality. 

Ribbon  Grass  {Phalaris  Americana)  is  the  beautiful  stri- 
ped grass  occasionally  used  for  garden  borders.  It  has  been 
highly  recommended  for  swamps,  where  it  is  alleged 
that  by  transplanting,  it  supesrsedes  all  other  grasses, 
and  affords  a  fine  quality  of  hay  of  an  appearance  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  upland  growth.  The  writer  tried  several  ex- 
periments both  with  the  seed  and  roots,  on  a  clay  marsh 
without  success.  Its  proper  pabulum  is  probably  a  carbona- 
ceous soil,  such  as  is  found  in  an  alluvial  swamp  or  peat  bed.  V 

Gama  G-R\.sni  {Tripsacum  dactyloides,)  \s  found  growing 
spontaneously  on  a  naked  sand  beach  in  Stratford,  Ct.  and  in 


THE    GRASSES,  MEADOWS,  ETC.  89 

other  places  on  our  eastern  coasts.  It  has  occasionally  been 
niuch  lauded,  but  is  a  coarse  rough  grass  at  the  north,  and 
seems  not  to  be  highly  prized  at  the  south.  We  have  the 
opinion  of  some  intelligent  men  in  the  latter  section,  that  it 
is  utterly  worthless  for  any  stock. 

Bek3IUda  Grass. — This  is  considered  by  Mr.  Spalding  of 
Georgia,  who  examined  them  both  critically  from  specimens 
which  he  raised  together,  as  the  Doub  grass  of  India,  so 
much  commended  by  Sir  William  Jones,  and  so  highly 
prized  by  the  Brahmins.  It  is  by  the  agriculturists  of  the 
south  deemed  an  invaluable  grass,  yielding  4  or  5  tons  per 
acre  on  good  meadow.  Mr.  Affleck  of  Mississippi  states  the 
yield  of  3  cuttings  at  '*5  to  8  tons  per  acre  on  common  mead- 
ow, that  it  loses  just  50  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying,  and 
is  consequently  the  hardest  grass  to  cut.  It  is  the  most  nu- 
tritive grass  known,  and  to  the  river  planter  it  is  invaluable. 
There  is  not  a  levee  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  which 
could  resist  for  an  hour  the  pressure  and  attrition  of  its  fear- 
ful flood  but  for  their  being  bound  together  by  this  grass." 
It  loves  a  warm  and  moist,  but  not  wet  soil. 

Grama  ("  la  grama^'"  or  the  "grass  of  grasses,'')  is  held  in 
the  highest  estimation  by  the  Mexicans.  It  attains  a  medr^ 
um  height,  and  is  deemed  the  most  nutritious  of  the  natural 
grasses  in  our  south  western  frontier  prairies,  in  California 
and  parts  of  Mexico.  It  grows  on  dry,  hard,  gravelly  soils,  on 
side  hills,  the  swells  of  the  prairies,  and  the  gentle  elevations 
in  the  vallies.  The  principal  value  is  found  in  the  numerous 
seeds,  which  are  retained  in  the  pods  with  great  tenacity 
long  after  they  are  ripe,  serving  as  a  luxurious  food  for  all 
the  graniverous  beasts  and  fowls  of  the  western  region. — 
{Dr,  Lyman.) 

The  Buffalo  Grass  is  found  intermixed  with  the  Grama, 
and  seldom  grows  more  than  a  few  inches  in  height.  It 
forms  a  thick  soft  herbage,  on  which  the  traveller  walks  with 
ease;  and  reposes  when  weary,  with  delight.  It  yields  a 
rich  sustenace  to  countless  herds  of  wild  cattle,  buffaloes, 
deer,  antelopes,  dec. 

TcTRNiLLo  OR  ScREW  Grass. — This  grows  in  great  profu- 
sion in  the  region  of  the  two  last  grasses,  but  is  most  con- 
spicuous on  the  table  lands,  and  between  the  rivers  and 
creeks,  the  tall  grass  of  the  lower  levels  giving  place  to  it  as 
the  surface  ascends.  It  is  taller  than  the  buffalo,  with  broad- 
er leaves.  It  bears  a  seed  stock  8  or  10  inches,  surrounded 
by  a  spiral  shaped  pod  an  inch  long  and  one  fourth  of  an  inch 


ftO  AMERICAN     AGRTCULTXmE. 

diameter,  which  contains  10  or  12  round  flattened  seeds. — 
The  herbage  is  not  relished  by  animals,  but  the  ripened 
seeds  yield  a  tbod  of  great  richness,  on  which  innumerable 
herds  of  wild  cattle  fatten  for  slaughter.  Horses,  mules  and 
most  other  animals  and  fowls  subsist  upon  it. — (Dr.  Lyman.) 

The  Prairie  Grasses  are  found  abundantly  in  the  western 
prairies  and  afford  large  supplies  of  nutritious  food  both  as 
pasturage  and  hay.  As  a  general  rule  however,  they  are 
coarse,  and  easily  injured  by  the  early  frosts  of  autumn.  Some 
of  the  leguminosse,  or  wild  pea  vines,  which  are  frequently 
found  among  them,  yield  the  richest  herbage.  We  are  not 
aware  that  any  of  these  grasses  have  been  cultivated  with 
success. 

Tijssac  Grass  (Dactylis  cesjntosa)  is  a  luxuriant  salt 
marsh  grass,  growing  in  large  tufts,  and  is  found  in  perfection 
on  its  native  soil,  the  Falkland  islands,  between  51"  and  52° 
south,  and  about  8°  east  of  the  straits  of  Magellan.  Capt. 
Ross  describes  it  as  "the  gold  and  glory  of  those  islands. — 
Every  animal  feeds  upon  it  with  avidity,  and  fattens  in  a 
short  time.  The  blades  are  about  6  feet  long  and  from  200 
to  300  shoots  spring  from  a  single  plant.  About  4  inches  of 
the  root  eats  like  the  mountain  cabbage.  It  loves  a  rank  wet 
peat  bog  with  the  sea  spray  over  it."  Governor  Hood  of 
those  islands  says,  "  to  cultivate  the  tussac,  I  would  recom- 
mend that  the  seed  be  sown  in  patches,  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  at  distances  of  about  two  feet  apart,  and 
afterwards  weeded  out,  as  it  grows  very  luxuriantly,  and  to 
the  height  of  six  or  seven  feet.  It  should  not  be  grazed,  but 
reaped  or  cut  in  bundles.  If  cut,  it  quickly  shoots  up  ;  but  is 
injured  by  grazing,  particularly  by  pigs,  who  tear  it  up  to  get 
at  the  sweet  nutty  root." 

Arundo  Grass,  (Arundo  alopeciinis.) — Mr.  Hooker  from 
the  same  islands  says, "  another  grass,  however,  far  more  abun- 
dant and  universally  distributed  over  the  whole  country, 
scarcely  yields  in  its  nutritious  qualities  to  the  tussac;  I 
n^ean  the  Arundo  Alopccurus,  which  covers  every  peat  bog 
with  a  dense  and  rich  clothing  of  green  in  summer,  and  a 
pale  yellow  good  hay  in  the  winter  season.  This  hay, 
though  formed  by  nature  without  being  mown  and  dried, 
keeps  those  cattle  which  have  not  access  to  the  former  grass 
in  excellent  condition.  No  bog,  however  rank,  seems  tqo 
bad  for  this  plant  to  luxuriate  in  ;  and  as  we  remarked  du- 
ring our  survey  of  Port  William,  although  the  soil  on  the 
quartz  districts  was  very  unprolific  in  many  good  grassef 


THE    GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  9l 

which  flourish  on  the  clay  slate,  and  generally  speaking,  of 
the  worst  description,  still  the  Arundo  did  not  appear  to  feel 
the  change  ;  nor  did  the  cattle  fail  to  eat  down  large  tracts  of 
tliis  pasturage." 

We  have  purposely  devoted  some  space  to  the  description 
of  such  new  grasses  as  are  indigenous  to  this  continent,  and 
which  b)^  their  superior  value  in  their  native  localities  would 
seem  to  commend  themselves  to  a  thorough  trial  in  similar 
situations  elsewhere.  There  are  doubtless  others  of  great 
merit,  which  experiment  hereafter,  will  demonstrate  to  be  of 
singular  benefit  to  the  American  farmer.  The  subject  of 
grasses  has  been  but  slightly  investigated  in  this  country  in 
comparison  with  its  immense  importance  ;  and  for  this  rea- 
son, with  few  exceptions,  we  are  at  a  loss  for  the  true  value 
of  the  foreign  and  indigenous  grasses  to  American  husbandry. 

As  an  instance  of  the  want  of  a  well  established  character 
to  some  of  our  cultivated  grasses,  we  quote  the  opinions  of 
Dr.  Muhlcnburgh  of  Pa.,  who  has  written  ably  on  the  subject, 
and  the  late  John  Taylor,  a  distinguished  agriculturist  of 
Virginia,  both  of  whom  place  the  tall  oat  grass  {Avena  elatior) 
at  the  head  of  the  grasses  ;  yet  from  the  investigations  made 
at  Woburn  it  appears  among  the  poorest  in  the  amount  of  nu- 
tritive  matter  yielded  per  acre.  Dr.  Darlington,  also  of  Penn- 
sylvania, does  not  mention  it  but  gives  the  following  as  com- 
prehending "  those  species  which  are  considered  of  chief  value 
in  our  meadows  and  pastures,  naming  them  in  what  I  consi- 
der the  order  of  their  excellence.  1.  Meadow  or  green  grass, 
(Poa pratensis.)  2.  Timothy,  {Phleum pratense.)  3.  Orchard 
grass,  (Dactylis  glomerata.)  4.  Meadow  fescue,  {Festuca 
pratensis.)  5.  B\ue  grassi,  (Poa  compressa.)  6.  Ray  grass, 
(Lolium peremiei)  1,  Red  top,  (Agrostis  vulgaris.)  8.  Sweet 
scented  vernal  grass,  (AntJioxanthum  odoratum.''^) 

The  sweet  scented,  soft  grass,  or  holy  grass,  (Holcus  odo- 
ratus,)  according  to  the  Woburn  table  is  next  to  the  tall  fiscue 
and  timothy  in  point  of  nutritive  matter  to  the  acre,  when  cut 
in  seed,  and  it  is  placed  as  far. in  advance  of  all  others  in  the 
value  of  its  aftermath  ;  yet  scarcely  any  other  authority  men- 
tions it  with  commendation.  Without  relying  on  these  ex- 
periments as  an  unerring  guide  for  the  American  farmer,  we 
append  the  table  on  the  two  following  pages,  as  the  fullest 
and  most  correct  we  have  on  the  subject,  and  as  affording  a 
useful  reference  to  some  of  the  leading  and  most  valuable  of 
the  English  grasses,  most  of  which  are  more  or  less  cultiva- 
ted in  this  country. 


92 


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94  AMERICAN    A&BICVLTVRE. 

Sowing  Grass  Seeds. — As  a  general  rule  grass  seeds  do 
best  when  sown  early  in  the  spring,  on  a  fine  tilth  or  mellow 
soil.  If  this  is  done  while  the  frost  is  leaving  the  ground, 
no  harrowing  will  be  necessary,  as  the  spring  rains  wash 
the  seed  into  the  honey-comb  left  by  the  frost,  and  secure  to 
it  an  early  germination.  They  are  also  successfully  sown 
in  August  or  September,  when  the  fall  rains  will  generally 
give  them  sufficient  growth  to  withstand  the  effects  of  the 
succeeding  winter,  if  the  land  be  free  from  standing  or  sur- 
face  water.  It  has  recently  been  the  practice  of  many  judi- 
cious  farmers,  to  renovate  their  old  worn  out  meadows,  by 
giving  them  a  coating  of  unfermented  manure,  and  then  turn 
the  sod  completely  over.  On  the  surface  thus  plowed,  a 
di'essing  of  well  rotted  manure  or  compost  with  ashes,  is 
spread  and  thoroughly  harrowed  lengthwise  of  the  furrows. 
The  seed  is  then  sown  and  slightly  harrowed  in,  and  the 
decomposing  manure  and  the  stubbie  and  roots  of  the  sod 
give  an  immediate  and  luxuriant  growth.  Grain  may  occupy 
the  land  with  the  grass  seed  ;  but  if  the  latter  be  sown  alone 
and  sufficiently  thick,  the  young  plants  will  exclude  the  weeds 
and  occupy  the  soil  as  profitably  as  can  be  done  with  the 
grain.  There  is  usually  a  great  deficiency  of  grass  seed 
sown  when  permanent  meadows  or  pastures  are  required. 
The  English  method  is  to  mix  together  and  sow  on  a  single 
acre,  without  any  grain,  4  or  5  bushels  of  various  seeds 
which  are  the  best  adapted  to  the  purpose.  A  quick  and 
full  growth  rapidly  covers,  the  surface  with  a  rich  herbage, 
surpassing  in  value  that  of  the  best  natural  pastures  or 
meadows. 

Lands  that  suould  be  kept  in  perpetual^  grass, 
are  such  as  are  frequently  under  water,  as  salt  and  fresh 
water  meadows ;  such  as  are  liable  to  ovcrilow,  as  the  rich 
bottom  or  interval  lands  upon  a  river  bank  ;  iieavy  tena- 
cious clays  and  mountain  or  steep  hill  side  land,  which  is 
peculiarly  liable  to  wash  fioni  rains.  The  low  bottom  lands 
generally  receive  one  or  more  annual  dressings  from  the  over- 
flowing waters.  The  fertilizing  matters  thus  deposited  are 
coiPiverted  into  hay,  and  become  a  reliable  source  for  increas- 
ing the  muck  heap  for  other  parts  of  the  fum  without  deman- 
ding any  thing  in  return.  The  thick  sward  of  nutricious 
grasses  which  nature  has  so  lavishly  supplied  to  them,  is  nn 
effectual  protection  against  abrasion  and  waste  from  the 
overflowing  water,  while  the  crop  if  at  any  time  submerged, 
can  receive  comparatively  little  injury.     If  plowed  and  the 


THE    GRASSES,  MEADOWS,   ETC.  95 

fine  loose  earth  is  exposed  to  a  sweeping  current,  much  of  the 
soil  and  ail  the  crop  may  be  lost. 

Strong  clay  lands  cannot  be  properly  worked  without  much 
labor,  unless  when  under  drained  and  well  filled  with  manure; 
and  they  seldom  exist  in  the  former  condition  in  this  country. 
Yet  these  soils  next  to  the  fertile,  self  sustaining  bottom 
lands,  are  the  most  profitable  for  the  various  grasses.  When 
put  into  this  crop,  after  first  clearing  off  the  native  growth 
of  wood,  the  fine  vegetable  mold  at  the  surface,  aided  by 
the  magazine  of  supplies  contained  in  the  clay  below,  gives 
to  them  the  most  certain  and  permanent  growth.  When 
once  plowed  this  mold  is  turned  under  and  the  intractable 
clay  takes  its  place  on  the  surface;  which,  lacking  those  pecu- 
liarities of  color,  texture  and  chemical  composition,  we  have 
before  shown  are  essential  to  the  most  successful  vegetation, 
the  grass  is  thin  and  comparatively  unproductive  for  years. 
When  necessary  to  break  up  such  lands,  they  should  be 
thoroughly  manured,  evenly  laid  down,  and  heavily  seeded  to 
grass  ;  and  if  any  deficiency  of  seed  or  growth  is  manifested 
they  should  receive  an  addition  of  seed  with  a  compost 
dressing. 

The  injury  to  plowing  steep  side  hills  is  sufficiently  apparent, 
as  not  only  the  soluble  matters,  but  many  of  the  finer  particles 
of  the  soil  are  washed  out  and  carried  far  beyond  reach. 
Such  lands  should  be  kept  in  permanent  pasture  if  not  suita- 
ble for  mowing.  If  fed  ofi'  by  sheep,  they  drop  most  of 
their  manure  on  the  higher  points  which  is  partially  washed 
down  and  sustains  the  fertility  of  every  part.  There  is 
still  another  class  of  lands  that  should  not  be  broken  up  for 
meadows.  These  are  such  as  are  filled  with  small  stones 
from  the  surface  of  which  they  have  been  cleared,  liut  which 
plowing  and  harrowing  will  again  bring  to  it  and  there  leave 
a  perpetual  annoyance  to  the  mower. 

The  means  of  renovating  permanent  Meadows  and 
Pastures. — The  general  theory  adopted  in  regard  to  pas- 
ture lands,  is  that  they  are  manured  sufficiently  by  the  animals 
feeding  on  them.  .  This  opinion  is  only  partially  correct. 
Pastures  wear  out  less  than  other  lands,  but  when  milch  cows 
and  working  animals  are  fed  upon  them,  they  carry  off  much 
of  the  produce  of  the  soil  which  is  never  again  returned  to  it. 
Even  the  wool  and  carcass  of  sheep  with  the  ordinary  escape 
of  the  salts  by  the  washing  of  the  rains,  will  after  a  long 
time,  impoverish  the  land.  How  much  more  rapidly  when 
much  of  the  manure  and  all  the  milk,  >vhich  is  rich  in  all 


96  AMERICAN    AGEICULTURE. 

the  elements  of  plants,  is  daily  carried  from  the  soil.  To 
such  an  extent  have  the  permanent  clay  pastures  of  Cheshire, 
(in  England,)  been  impoverished,  that  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  manure  them  with  crushed  bones,  which  at 
once  brought  up  their  value  more  than  100  percent.  There 
is  much  phosphate  of  lime  in  milk,  and  bones  which  are 
mostly  of  the  same  material,  are  the  best  manure  that  could 
be  used  for  dairy  pastures.  Wool  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  sulphur,  and  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum)  becomes  a  proper 
manure  for  sheep  pastures  ;  but  whatever  has  a  tendency  to 
develop  vegetation,  will  generally  accomplish  the  object  by 
yielding  all  the  needful  properties.  Ashes  and  salt  are  of 
the  highest  value  for  pasture  lands,  and  with  the  addition  in 
some  instances,  of  lime,  bones  and  gypsum,  are  all  that 
would  ever  be  necessary  for  permanent  pastures.  From  the 
peculiar  action  of  these,  instead  of  growing  i)oorer,  pastures 
may  becotne  richer  through  every  successive  year. 

Permanent  meadow  lands  if  constantly  cj'opjjed  vnihout 
manures,  may  be  exhausted  with  much  greater  rapidity  than 
pastures  though  this  depreciation  is  much  more  gradual  than 
with  tillage  lands.  There  is  no  greater  mistake  than  to 
suppose  they  will  keep  in  condition  by  taking  off  one  annual 
crop  only,  and  either  pasturing  the  aftermath  or  leaving  it  to 
decay  on  the  ground.  By  recurring  to  the  table  of  the  ash 
of  plants,  page  32,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  analysis  of  hay 
there  given  shows  over  5  per  cent.,  while  dried  clover  yields 
from  7  to  9  per  cent,  of  earthy  matter.  Every  particle  of 
this  is  essential  to  the  success  of  the  plant,  and  yet  if  the 
land  produces  at  the  rate  of  3  tons  per  acre,  they  are  taken 
off  to  the  amount  of  upwards  of  300  lbs  per  annum.  No 
soils  but  such  as  are  periodically  flooded  with  enriching 
waters,  can  long  suffer  such  a  drain  with  impunity.  Tliey 
must  he  renewed  with  tJie  proper  manures,  or  barrenness 
will  ensue.  Ashes,  lime,  bones,  and  gypsum,  (the  latter 
especially  to  to  be  applied  to  clovers,  its  good  effects  not 
being  so  marked  on  the  grasses,)  are  essential  to  maintain 
fertility,  and  to  insure  the  greatest  product,  animal  or  vege- 
table manures  must  also  be  added.  The  proper  manner  of 
applying  manure,  is  by  mixing  in  a  compost  and  scattering  it 
over  the  surface  when  the  grass  is  just  commencing  a  vigor- 
ous growth  in  spring,  or  simultaneously  with  the  first  rains 
after  mowing.  The  growing  vegetation  soon  buries  th(^ 
manure  under  its  thick  foliage,  and  the  refreshing  showers 
wash  its  soluble  matters  into  the  roots  ;  and  even  the  gases 


THE     GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  97 

that  would  otlierwise  escape,  are  immediately  absorbed  by 
the  dense  leaves  and  stalks  which  every  wheie  surround  it. 
The  loss  of  manure  is  trifling  even  in  a  stale  of  active 
decomposition,  when  scattered  broadcast  under  such  circum- 
stances. 

Pasturing  Meadows. — There  is  no  objection  to  feeding  olY 
meadows  in  early  autumn,  while  the  ground  io  dry  and  tho 
sod  firm.  The  roots  of  the  grass  are  rather  benelitted  than 
injured  ])y  the  browsing  and  the  land  is  improved  by  the  drop- 
pings from  the  cattle.  But  they  should  never  be  ])astured  in 
spring.  It  is  economy  to  purchase  hay  at  any  price  rather 
than  to  spring-pasture  meadows. 

Rotation  on  grass  lands. — Most  eoils  admit  of  a  profi- 
table rotation  or  change  of  crops,  and  where  this  is  the  case 
it  is  generally  better  to  allow  grasses  to  make  up  one  of  tho 
items  in  this  rotation.  Where  these  are  successfully  grown 
in  permanent  meadows,  this  change  or  breaking  up  is  lesa 
to  be  sought  on  their  own  account  than  for  the  other  crops, 
which  do  hotter  for  having  a  rich  fresh  turf  to  revel  in.  Thug 
potatoes  are  sounder,  better  and  yield  more  on  turf  than  on 
old  plowed  ground  ;  and  the  grain  crops  are  generally  more 
certain  and  abundant  than  on  other  lands.  But  there  are 
many  of  the  light  soils  which  retain  the  grasses  only  for 
a  short  time.  These  should  be  placed  in  a  rotation  which 
never  assigns  more  than  two  years  to  gras«. 

TniE  FOR  CUTTING  GRASS. — This  must  depend  on  tho 
kind  of  grass.  We  have  seen  that  Timothy  aflbr«ls  nearly 
double  the  quantity  of  nutriment  in  seed  than  it  iloes  in 
flower,  and  it  is  then  much  more  relished  by  stock.  Timo- 
thy therefore  should  never  be  cut  except  when  the  seed  in 
formed.  The  proper  time  is  when  it  is  between  the  milk 
and  dough  state,  and  will  nearly  ripen  alter  cutting.  Orchard 
grass  on  the  other  hand,  although  it  possesses  two-seventhej 
more  nutritive  value  for  hay  in  the  seed,  yet  as  it  is  more 
tender,  and  preferred  by  stock  when  cut  in  flower,  and  as  it 
continues  to  grow  rapidly  afterwards,  should  be  always 
cut  at  that  time. 

Curing  Grass. — Many  farmers  do  not  consider  the  scorch- 
ing effects  of  our  cloudless  July  suns,  and  the  consequence  ia 
that  hay  is  too  much  dried  in  this  country.  Unless  the  crop 
be  very  large,  grass  will  generally  cure  sufficiently  when 
exposed  in  the  swath  for  two  days.  When  shook  or  stirred 
out,  it  should  not  remain  in  this  condition  beyond  the  first 
day,  as  it  will  lose  much  of  its  nutritive  juices  ;  nor  should 
D 


98  -  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

dew  or  rain  be  permitted  to  fall  upon  it  unless  in  cocks.  It 
•is  better  after  partially  drying,  to  expose  it  for  three  or 
four  days  in  this  way,  and  as  soon  as  properly  cured  place  it 
under  cover.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  salt  hay  when  put  up, 
as  it  is  thus  secured  against  damage  from  occasional  green- 
ness ;  and  there  is  no  waste  of  the  salt  as  it  serves  the  double 
object  after  curing  the  hay,  of  furnishing  salt  to  the  cattle  and 
the  manurefheap. 

THECLOVERS, 

Sometimes  improperly  called  grasses,  are  botanically  ar- 
ranged in  the  order,  leguminosce,  under  the  same  head  with 
the  bean,  pea,  locust,  vetches,  &c.  More  than  160  speiTies 
of  clover  have  been  detected  by  naturalists.  Their  properties 
and  characteristics  are  totally  unlike  the  grasses,  with  which 
they  agree  only  in  their  contributing  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  support  of  farm  stock.  There  are  many  varieties  culti- 
vated abroad,  but  the  attention  of  farmers  in  this  country  has 
been  limited  to  a  very  few. 

The  Common  Red  or  Northern  Clover,  {T?ifolium 
pratense,)  a  biennial,  and  occasionally  on  calcareous  soils,  a 
triennial,  is  the  species  most  generally  in  use  in  the  United 
States.  This  is  a  hardy,  easily  cultivated  variety,  growing 
luxuriantly  on  every  properly  drained  soil  of  sufficient  strength 
to  afford  it  nutriment.  It  has  numerous  strong  well  devel- 
oped stems,  branching  outwardly  and  vertically  from  a  single 
seed,  and  bearing  broad  thick  leaves  which  are  surmounted 
by  a  large  reddish  purple  flower.  By  the  analysis  of  Davy 
the  whole  plant  yields  an  amount  of  nutritive  matter  fully 
equal  to  any  other  of  the  clovers. 

Mode  of  Cultivation, — Clover  may  be  sown  broadcast  either 
in  August  or  September,  or  early  in  the  spring,  with  most  of 
the  cereal  grains  or  the  cultivated  grasses  ;  or  it  may  pro- 
fitably constitute  a  crop  by  itself.  The  quantity  of  seed 
required  per  acre  depends  on  the  kind  of  soil.  On  well  pre- 
pared loams  10  or  12  lbs,  of  good  seed  will  frequently  give 
a. full  covering  to  the  land,  while  on  clay  12  to  16  lbs.  are 
necessary  per  acre.  When  sown  with  the  grasses,  4  to  6  lbs. 
on  the  lirst,  and  8  to  12  lbs.  on  the  last  soil  will  sufticc.  An 
additional  amount  of  seed,  as  with  the  grasses,  will  give  a 
finer  quality  of  hay  in  consequence  of  multiplying  the  number 
of  stalks  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  to  insure  it  on  every 
spot  of  the  field,  it  should  always  be  liberally  sown.  The 
covering,  like  that  of  grass  seeds,  should  be  of  the  slightest 


THE     GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  99 

kind  ;  and  when  sown  very  early  in  the  spring  or  on  well 
pulverized  grounds  and  followed  by  rains,  it  will  germinate 
freely  without  harrowing.  After  the  leaves  are  developed 
in  the  spring,  nn  application  of  gypsum  should  be  made 
by  sowing  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  one  to  three  or  four  bush- 
els per  acre.  The  eifect  of  this  on  clover  is  singularly  great, 
and  it  seems  to  be  augmented  by  applying  it  on  the  leaves. 
This  may  perhaps  be  accounted  for  in  the  fact,  that  besides 
its  other  uses,  gypsum  yields  a  considerable  proportion  both 
of  its  sulphuric  acid  and  lime  to  the  plant  and  thus  consti- 
tutes  a  direct  food.  The  influence  of  gypsum  is  almost 
incredible  in  developing  the  clovers  on  fields  where  they 
were  hardly  discernable  before.  This  may  be  Avitnessed  in 
almost  any  soil  where  gypsum  has  any  effect.  By  sowing 
a  quantity  over  th«  grass  plat  containing  either  the  seeds  or 
plants  of  the  clover,  however  thin  or  meagre  they  may  be, 
an  immediate  and  luxuriant  growth  distinguishes  the  spot 
which  has  received  it,  from  all  the  surrounding  field.  Bones 
are  invaluable  manure  for  the  clovers.  The  table  of  the 
ashes  shows  the  great  quantity  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid 
(the  leading  elements  of  bones)  which  the  clovers  contain  in 
comparison  with  the  rye  grass  which  is  a  type  of  the  other 
grasses.  Thus  the  red  clover  has  about  four  times  as  much 
lime,  twenty-six  times  as  much  phosphoric  acid,  more  soda 
and  sulphuric  acid,  and  nearly  twice  and  a  half  as  much 
potash  as  the  grass.  The  white  clover  has  about  four  times 
the  potash  ;  the  lucern  nearly  seven  times  the  lime,  and 
fifty-two  times  the  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  the  grass. 

Such  are  the  various  demands  of  plants  and  the  necessity 
of  providing  each  with  its  specific  food.  And  hence  the 
advantage  of  cultivating  a  variety  of  grasses  and  clover  on 
the  same  spot.  Each,  it  is  true,  draws  its  nutriment  from 
the  same  elements,  but  in  such  unlike  proportions  that  when 
they  cease  to  yield  adequate  support  to  one  the  soil  may  still 
be  rich  in  those  which  will  give  luxuriant  growth  to  others. 
Thus  two  or  more  of  the  forage  plants  when  growing  toge- 
ther may  each  yield  a  large  crop,  swelling  the  aggregate 
product  far  beyond  what  would  be  realized  in  the  separate 
cultivation  of  either.  This  is  one  of  the  instances,  and  it  is 
sufficiently  satisfactory,  of  the  utility  of  good  husbandry  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  mixed  grasses  and  forage. 

Time  for  cutting  and  mode  of  curing  Clover. — Clover  should 
be  cut  after  having  fully  blossomed  and  assumed  a  brownish 


100  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

hue.  By  close  cutting  more  forage  is  secured  and  the  clo- 
ver afterwards  springs  up  more  rapidly  and  evenly.  The 
swath,  unless  very  heavy,  ought  never  to  be  stirred  open 
but  allowed  to  wilt  on  the  top.  It  may  then  be  carefully 
turned  over  an!  when  thus  partially  cured,  placed  in  high 
slender  cocks  and  remain  till  sufficiently  dry  to  remove  into 
the  barn.  The  clover  may  be  housed  in  a  much  greener 
state  by  spreading  evenly  over  it  in  the  mow  from  10  to  20 
quarts  of  salt  per  ton.  Some  add  a  bushel  but  this  is  more 
than  is  either  necessary  or  judicious  for  the  stock  consum- 
ing it,  as  the  purgative  effects  of  too  much  salt  induce  a 
wasteful  consumption  of  the  forage.  A  mixture  of  alternate 
layers  of  dry  straw  with  the  clover,  by  absorbing  its  juices 
answers  the  same  purpose,  while  it  materially  improves  tlie 
flavor  of  the  straw  for  fodder. 

After -management  of  clover  fields. — The  second  crop  of 
clover  may  be  either  saved  for  s6ed,  mown,  pastured,  or 
turned  under  for  manure.  As  this  is  usually  a  biennial 
when  allowed  to  ripen,  the  stocks  die  off  after  the  second 
year,  unless  its  seeding  has  been  prevented,  and  the  crop  is 
only  partially  sustained  by  the  seed  which  may  have  ger- 
minated the  second  year  from  the  first  sowing,  or  from 
such  as  has  been  shed  upon  the  surface  from  the  seed  ma- 
tured on  the  ground.  The  maximum  benefit  derivable  to 
the  soil  in  the  manure  of  the  stubble  and  roots  is  attained  the 
second  year,  as  we  have  seen  that  the  dried  roots  of  the  clo. 
ver  at  that  time  are  in  the  proportion  of  56  for  every  100 
lbs.  of  clover  hay  produced  from  them  in  two  years.  But 
the  ground  is  then  so  full  of  the  roots  as  to  check  further 
accumulation.  This  then  is  the  proper  time  for  plowing  up 
the  field  and  renewing  again  its  accustomed  r:)und  of  crops. 
If  desirable,  the  clover  may  be  imperfectly  sustained  on 
some  soils  for  a  few  years  by  the  addition  of  gypsum,  bone- 
dust,  ashes  and  other  manures,  which  will  develop  and 
mature  the  ripened  seeds,  but  the  greater  tenacity  of  other 
plants  and  grasse.«,  will  soon  reduce  il  to  a  nn'nor  product  in 
the  field. 

Importance  of  the  Clovers. — The  great  value  of  the  diffe- 
rent clovers  as  forngc  was  well  known  to  the  ancients. 
They  were  largely  cultivated  by  the  early  Romans,  and 
since  that  period,  they  have  been  extended  throughout  a 
large  part  of  Europe.  They  were  not  introduced  into  GreiVf 
Britain  till  the  10th  century,  but  have  since  constituted  a 


TIFF,    01? ASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  lOl 

piolilablc  branch  of  its  liusbandry.  Their  importance  has 
long  been  acknowledged  in  the  United  States.  'I'he  nutri- 
tive matter,  although  relatively  less  than  from  some  of  the 
grasses,  is  yet  in  the  amount  per  acre,  fully  equal  to  the 
average  of  any  other  lorage  crop  which  is  produced  at  the 
same  expense.  ll  is  early  and  cheaply  raised,  it  is  liable  to 
few  or  no  casualties  or  insect  enemies  in  this  country,  and 
its  long  tap  roots  are  powerful  auxiliaries  in  the  division 
and  im})rovement  of  soils.  Its  broad,  succulent  leaves  de- 
rive a  large  porlion  of  their  nutriment  from  the. atmosph<?re, 
and  thus  while  it  atlbrds  a  product  eqjLioi'^jDrthpp  best  grasses, 
it  draws  a  large  part  of  it  fromnhe  conimQi;i, store  house  of 
nature  without  subjecting  the  fa'?,'me'n40bth«'  fe«]5ie»sie'c4\pjioe 
viding  it  in  his  manures.  ■    >  ^    -  .. 

It  is  as  a  l"ertilizer  however,  that  it  is  so  decidedly  superior 
to  other  crops.  In  addition  to  the  advantages  before  enu- 
merated, tbe  facility  and  economy  of  its  cultivation,  the 
great  amount  yielded,  and  lastly  the  convenient  form  it  offers 
for  covering  with  the  plow,  contribute  to  place  it  far  above 
any  other  vegetable.  All  the  grains  and  roots  do  well  after 
clover,  and  wheat  especially  which  follows  it,  is  more  gene- 
rally free  from  disease  than  when  sown  with  any  other 
manure.  The  introduction  of  clover  and  lime  in  con- 
nexion, has  carried  up  the  price  of  many  extensive  tracts  of 
land  from  $10  to  $50  per  acre,  and  has  enabled  the  occu- 
pant to  raise  large  crops  of  wheat  where  he  could  get  only 
small  crops  of  rye  ;  and  it  has  frequently  increased  his  crop 
of  wheat  three-fold  where  he  had  before  produced  it. 

It  is  a  common  observation  of  intelligent  farmers,  that 
they  are  never  at  a  loss  to  renovate  such  lands  as  w  ill  pro- 
duce even  a  moderate  crop  of  clover.  Poor  clay  i^-nda 
not  capable  of  bearing  it,  have  become  so  by  sowing  an  early 
and  late  crop  of  oats  in  the  same  season  and  feeding  them 
off  on  the  ground.  Poor  sandy  soils  may  be  made  to  sustain 
clover  with  manure,  ashes  and  gypsum,  combined  with  the 
free  use  of  the  roller.  This  object  is  much  facilitated  by 
scattering  dry  straw  over  llie  surface,  which  affords  shade, 
increases  the  deposite  of  dew  and  prolongs  its  effects.  When- 
ever the  period  of  clover-producing  is  attained,  the  improve- 
ment of  the  soil  may  be  pushed  with  a  rapidity  commensu- 
rate with  the  inclination  and  means  of  the  owner. 

Harvesting  clover  seed  may  be  done  generally  after 
taking  off  one  crop,    or  pasturing  the  field  till  June,  or  at 


102  AMERICAN    AGRTOULTURE. 

such  tiiDe  as  experience  shows  to  be  the  proper  one  for 
leaving  it  to  mature  a  full  crop  of  seed.  Early  mowing 
removes  the  first  weeds,  and  the  second  growth  of  the  clo- 
ver is  so  rapid  as  to  smother  them  and  prevent  their  seeding, 
and  the  clover  is  thus  saved  comparatively  clean.  It  is  then 
mown  and  raked  into  very  small  cocks,  and  when  dried  at 
the  top  they  are  turned  completely  over  without  breaking, 
and  as  soon  as  thoroughly  dried  they  may  may  be  carried 
to  the  threshing  floor  and  the  seeds  beaten  out  with  sticks, 
ligjit  ^ails,  or  with, a;  threshing  machine.  An  instrument 
wi1^']closely  ce't 't^fcth'^and  drawn  by  a  horse  is  sometimes 
use'd  for  collectirig  the.  clover  heads  from  the  standing  stalks 
' from  w/iiich'  ihe^seed  ife, afterwards  separated.  I f  wanted  for 
lis'e' 'on  *lhe 'farm,  these  Iieads  are  sometimes  sown  without 
threshing.  The  calyx  of  the  clovers  is  so  firmly  attached 
to  the  seed  as  to  be  removed  with  difficulty,  but  if  thrown 
into  a  heap  after  threshing  and  gently  pressed  together  a 
slight  fermentation  takes  place  and  the  seed  is  afterwards 
readily  cleaned.  A  fan  or  clover  machine  may  be  used  for 
cleaning  the  seed  for  market.  The  produce  is  from  three 
to  six  bushels  per  acre  which  is  worth  to  the  farmer  from 
#3  to  $5  per  bushel  of  60  lbs. 

Southern  Clover  [Trifolium  medium)  is  a  smaller  spe- 
cies  than  the  T.  'pratense  and  matures  ten  or  fourteen  days 
earlier,  and  the  soil  best  suited  to  it  is  nearly  similar.  It 
does  better  on  a  light  thin  soil  than  the  larger  northern  and 
should  be  sown  thicker.  Strong  clay  or  rich  loamy  soils 
will  produce  much  heavier  crops  of  the  larger  kind.  Expe- 
rience alone  will  determine  which  of  these  kinds  should  be 
adopted  under  all  the  circumstances  of  soil,  fertility,  &c. 

White  Creeping  Clover  {Trifolmm  repetis.) — There 
are  several  varieties  of  white  clover  all  of  which  are  hardy, 
nutritious  and  self  propagating.  Wherever  they  have  once 
been,  the  ground  becomes  filled  witii  the  seed  which  spring 
up  whenever  an  opportunity  is  afforded  them  for  growth. 
They  are  peculiarly  partial  to  clay  lands  having  a  rich 
vegetable  mould  on  the  surface,  and  ihe  addition  of  gypsum 
will  at  all  times  give  them  great  luxuriance.  Their  dwarf 
character  renders  them  unfit  for  the  scythe,  while  the  dense 
matted  mass  of  sweet  rich  food  ever  growing  and  ever 
abundant,  makes  them  most  valuable  for  pasture  herbage. 

The  Yellow  Clover,  Hop  Trefoil  or  Shamrock  {Tri- 
folium  procumbens)  like  the  white,  is  of  spontaneous  growth, 


THH    GRASSES,  MEADOWS,  ETC.  103 

very  hardy  and  prolific.  It  bears  a  yellow  flower  and  black 
seeds.  It  is  one  of  those  unostentatious  plants,  which  though 
never  sown  and  little  heeded,  help  to  make  up  that  useful 
variety  which  gives  value  and  permanence  to  our  best 
pasture  lands. 

Many  other  of  the  minute  Clovers  and  leguminos^, 
THE  Wild  Pea,  &c.,  abound  in  our  untitled  lands  and  add 
much  to  the  value  of  the  forage,  although  their  merits  and 
even  their  existence  sire  scarcely  known. 

Crimson  or  Scarlet  Clover  (TrifoUum  incarnatum)  is 
a  native  of  Italy  and  much  cultivated  in  France.  It  bears 
a  longhead  of  bright  scarlet  flowers,  and  in  southern  Europe 
is  a  profitable  crop.  Although  it  was  introduced  into  this 
country  many  years  since  it  has  not  hitherto  commended 
itself  to  particular  attention  as  an  object  of  agriculture. 

LiJCEKN  {Medicago  saliva)  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
plants  for  forage  ever  cultivated.  It  was  extensively  cultiva- 
ted by  the  Greeks,  and  other  nations  of  antiquity  for  many  cen- 
turies, and  it  has  been  a  prominent  object  of  attention  in  Ita- 
ly, Spain,  France,  Holland  and  Flanders.  Its  relative  ralue 
as  compared  with  clover  (T.  pratense^)  is  decidedly  inferior, 
while  its  absolutle  value  per  acre,  is  much  greater.  It  was 
early  introduced  into  this  country.  Chancellor  Livingston 
published  his  experiments  w4th  it  in  1791  to  '94,  by  which  he 
estimates  that  he  cut  in  one  season,  at  the  rate  of  6  1-5  tons 
per  acre  in  five  cuttings,  yielding  a  profit  of  over  835  an  acre. 
It  bears  from  three  to  live  crops  per  annum,  containing  from 
three  to  eight  tons  of  hay.  Those  who  have  cultivated  it  pro- 
nounce it  hardy  and  as  capable  of  successful  growth  in  this 
country  as  clover,  but  to  reach  the  highest  product,  it  requires 
a  richness  of  soil  and  carefulness  of  cultivation,  which  would 
give  an  enormous  produce  to  its  more  humble  rival. 

Manner  of  Cultivation. — It  must  have  a  deep,  dry,  loamy 
soil,  free  from  weeds,  and  well  filled  with  manure.  A  suita- 
ble crop  to  precede  it  is  corn  or  potatoes,  heavily  manured 
and  kept  clean.  Plow  in  the  fall,  and  add  40  bushels  crush- 
ed bones  per  acre  ;  and  early  in  April,  harrow  throughly,  and 
sow  in  drills  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  feet  apart  at  the 
rate  of  8  or  10  lbs.  seed  per  acre.  Stir  the  ground  and  ex- 
tirpate the  weeds  with  the  cultivator  or  horse  and  hand  hoe. 
It  may  be  lightly  cropped  the  first  year,  and  more  freely  the 
second,  but  it  does  not  attain  full  maturity  till  the  third.  The 
roots  strike  deep  into  the  ground,  and  being  a  perennial,  it 
requires  no  renewal,  except  from  the  loss  of  the  plants  by 


104  AMEHTCAN    AGRICULTURE. 

casualties.  It  should  be  cut  before  getting  too  heavy,  and 
cured  like  clover.  Liquid  manure  is  good  for  it,  as  are  also 
gypsum  and  ashes.  Barn  yard  manure  is  occasionally  neces- 
sary, but  to  avoid  weeds,  it  must  be  thoroghly  fermented  to 
destroy  all  the  seeds.  It  is  sometimes  sown  broad  cast,  but 
the  rapid  progress  of  weeds,  grass,  &c.  in  the  soil  will  soon 
extirpate  it  if  they  are  suffered  to  grow  ;  and  there  is  no  other 
means  of  effectually  eradicating  them  but  by  cultivating  the 
lucern  in  drills,  and  the  hoe  and  cultivator  can  then  keep  the 
weeds  in  subjection.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants 
for  soiling.  From  the  care  and  attention  required,  the  culti- 
vation of  lucern  is  properly  limited  to  an  advanced  state  of 
agriculture  and  a  dense  population,  where  labor  is  cheap  and 
products  high.  In  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities  it  may  be 
advantageously  grown,  and  in  all  places  where  soiling  is 
practiced. 

Sain-foin  [Hedysar-um  onoh-ychis,)  the  esparce/te  of  the 
French,  is  a  native  of  the  chalk  soils  of  Europe  and  is  adapt- 
ed only  to  strong  calcareous  lands.  On  such  it  is  a  valuable 
herbage,  as  the  roots  penetrate  to  a  great  depth  and  yield 
large  burdens  of  nutritious  fodder.  Though  often  attempted, 
we  are  not  aware  that  it  has  been  raised  to  any  extent  in  this 
country. 

Bokhara  or  Sweet-scented  Clover  (MeUlolus  major) 
is  a  tall,  shrub-like  plant,  growing  to  the  height  of  4  to  6 
feet  with  branches  whose  extremities  bear  numerous  small 
white  flowers  of  great  fragrance.  When  full  grown  it  is  too 
coarse  for  forage,  but  if  thick  and  cut  young  it  yields  a  pro- 
fusion of  green  or  winter  fodder.  It  should  be  sown  in  the 
spring  with  about  2  lbs.  of  seed  per  acre,  in  drills  16  to  20 
inches  apart ;  it  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  and  cultivated 
like  lucern.  It  requires  a  rieh,  mellow,  loamy  soil.  There 
are  some  other  plants  which  might  probably  be  introduced 
into  American  husbandry  for  f()rage  with  decided  advantage. 
Among  these  is 

j^purrv  (Spei'guln  a/Tensis.) — It  is  a  hardy  plant  which 
grows  spontaneously  in  the  middle  states.  Its  chief  merit 
consists  in  its  growing  on  soils  too  thin  to  bear  clover.  On 
such  it  can  be  judiciously  used  to  bring  them  up  to  the  clover 
bcaiing  point,  fwm  which  they  can  be  taken  and  carried  for- 
ward much  more  rapidly  by  the  clovers.  Van  Voght  says^, 
"  it  is  better  than  red  of  white  clover ;  the  cows  give  more" 
and  better  milk  when  fed  on  it,  and  it  improves  the  land  iu  an 
extraordinary   degree.     If  the  land  is  to  lie   several  years  in 


THE    0KAS8ES,    MEADOWS,  ETC.'  105 

pasture  white  clover  must  be  sown  with  it.  When  sown  in 
the  middle  of  April  it  is  ripe  for  pasture  by  the  end  of  May. 
If  eaten  off  in  June,  the  land  is  turned  flat  and  another  crop 
is  sown  which  affords  fine  pasture  in  August  and  September. 
This  operation  is  equivalent  to  a  dressing  often  loads  of  manure 
per  acre  The  blessing  of  spurry,  the  clover  of  sandy  lands, 
is  incredible  when  rightly  employed."  Three  crops  can  be 
grown  upon  land  in  one  season  which  if  turned  in  or  fed  on 
the  ground,  can  be  made  a  means  of  rapid  improvement. 

PASTURES. 

It  is  too  ofteji  the  case,  that  pastures  are  neglected  and 
like  woodlands  are  allowed  to  run  to  such  vegetation  as  un- 
assisted nature  may  dictate.  As  a  necessary  consequence, 
their  forage  is  frequently  meagre  and  coarse  and  incapable 
either  in  quantity  or  quality  of  suppporting  half  the  number 
of  cattle  in  poor  condition,  that  might  otherwise  be  full  fed 
from  them.  But  if  we  consider  that  pastures  furnish  most  of 
the  domestic  stock  with  their  only  food  for  seven  months  of 
the  year  at  the  north,  and  generally  for  ten  months  at  the 
south,  they  may  well  be  deemed  worthy  the  particular  atten- 
tion of  the  farmer. 

Pastures  ought  to  he  properly  divided ;  and  it  is  perhaps 
a  difficult  point  to  determine  between  the  advantge  of  small 
ranges,  and  the  expense  and  inconvenience  of  keeping  up 
numerous  divisions.  The  latter  requires  a  large  outlay  on 
every  farm,  not  only  for  the  first  cost  of  material  and 
annual  repairs,  but  from  the  loss  of  land  occupied  by  them  ; 
and  they  are  further  objectionable  from  their  harboring 
weeds  and  vermin.  Yet  it  is  beneficial  to  give  animals  a 
change  of  feed,  and  the  grass  coines  up  evenly  and  grows  un- 
disturbed, if  the  cattle  be  removed  for  a  while.  There  is  a 
further  advantage  in  being  able  to  favor  some  particular  indi- 
viduals or  classes  of  animals.  Thus  fattening  stock  ought  to 
have  the  best  feed ;  milch  cows  and  working  animals  the 
next ;  then  young  stock ;  while  sheep  will  thrive  on  shorter 
feed  than  either  and  greedily  consume  most  plants  which 
the  others  reject.  By  this  means  a  field  will  be  thoroughy 
cleansed  of  all  plants  which  animals  will  eat,  and  the  remain- 
der should  be  extirpated.  The  same  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  propagation  of  weeds  in  pastures  as  in  other  fields. 
Many  of  these,  mullen,  thistle  and  the  like,  multiply  prodi- 
giously from  sufferance,  and  if  unchecked  will  soon  over- 
spread the  farm. 
D* 


106  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Every  pasture  should  if  possible,  be  provided  with  ruiming 
water  and  shade  trees,  or  other  ample  protection  against  a 
summer's  sun.  The  last  can  at  all  times  be  secured  by  a  few 
boards  supported  on  a  light,  temporary  frame.  Excessive 
heat  exhausts  and  sometimes  sickens  animals,  and  conse- 
quently it  materially  diminishes  the  effects  of  food  in  promo- 
ting  their  secretion  of  milk,  the  growth  of  wool,  flesh,  &;c. 
Pastures  ought  to  be  protected  against  poaching  in  the  spring 
or  late  in  the  autumn.  All  grounds  immediately  after  long 
and  late  rains  in  the  fall  or  the  winter's  frosts,  arc  liable  to 
this  when  exposed  to  the  hoofs  of  cattle,  particularly  clay 
lands  and  such  as  have  been  recently  seeded.  On  late,  and 
oif  early,  is  a  good  rule  to  be  adopted  for  spring  and  fall 
pasturing.  Wherever  the  grasses  disappear,  fresh  seeds 
should  be  added  and  harrowed  in  ;  mosses  sliould  be  destroy- 
ed ;  they  should  be  properly  drained  and  every  attention 
paid  to  them  that  is  bestov/ed  on  the  mowing  lands,  except 
that  they  seldom  require  manures.  But  ashes,  gypsum, 
lime,  &c.,  may  frequently  be  applied  to  them  with  great  pro- 
fit. Pastures  should  take  their  course  in  rotation  when  they 
get  bare  of  choice  herbage  or  full  of  weeds  and  it  is  possible 
to  break  them  up  advantageously.  Though  many  choice,  na- 
tural  forage  plants  may  thus  be  destroyed,  yet  if  again  turned 
into  grass  at  the  proper  period  and  they  are  sown  with  a  plen- 
tiful stock  of  assorted  grass  seeds  on  a  rich  and  well  prepared 
surface,  they  will  soon  place  themselves  in  a  productive  state. 


GRAirf    AND    IT.S    CULTIVATION.  107 


CHAPTER   VII. 


GRAIN  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION. 

WHEAT  (Triticum). 
This  is  one  of  tho  most  important  and  most  generally 
cultivated  of  the  cereal  grains,  (or  grasses  as  they  are  bo- 
tanically  termed,)  though  both  rice  and  maize  or  Indian 
corn,  contribute  lo  the  support  of  a  larger  population.  It  is 
found  in  every  latitude  excepting  those  which  approach  too 
nearly  to  the  poles  or  equator,  but  it  can  be  profitably  raised 
only  within  such  as  are  strictly  denominated  temperate. 
Linnteiis  describes  only  six  varieties,  but  later  botanists  enu- 
merate about  thirty;  while  of  the  sub-varieties  there  are  sev- 
eral hundred.  The  only  division  necej^sary  for  our  present 
purpose  is  of  the  winter  wheat,  {Triiicum  hyhurnum)  and 
spring  or  summer  wheat  {Triticum  (pstivum).  The  former 
requires  the  action  of  frost  to.  bring  it  to  full  maturity,  and  is 
sown  in  Autumn.  Germination  before  exposure  to  frost, 
does  not  however,  seem  absolutely  essential  to  its  success, 
as  fine  crops  have  been  raised  from  seed  after  having  been 
satui'ated  with  water  and  frozen  for  some  weeks,  and  sown 
early  in  spring.  It  has  also  l)een  successfully  raised  when 
sowed  early  in  the  season  and  while  the  frost  yet  occupied 
the  ground.  Spring  and  winter  wheat  may  be  changed 
from  one  to  the  other  by  sowing  at  the  proper  time  through 
successive  seasons,  and  without  material  injury  to  their 
character.  The  latter  grain  is  by  far  the  most  productive, 
the  straw  is  stouter,  the  head  more  erect  and  full,  the 
grain  plumper  and  heavier,  and  the  price  it  bears  in  market, 
from  8  to  15  per  cent,  higher  than  that  of  spring  wheat. 
This  difference  of  price  depends  rather  on  the  appearance 
of  the  flour  and  its  greater  whiteness,  than  on  any  intrinsic 


Staich, 

iDftplubU 

matte  (. 

70 

6 

74 

5 

77 

4 

53 

34 

108  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUUB. 

deficiency  in  its  substantial  qualities.  The  analysis  of  Davy 
gave  in  100  parts  of 

Oluteu. 

Spring  wheat  of  1804,  24 

Best  Sicilian  winter  wheat,  21 

Good  English  winter  wheat  of  1803   19 

Blighted  wheat  of  1804  13 

This  analysis  gives  the  greatest  nutritive  value  to  the  spring 
wheat,  as  the  gluten  constitutes  the  most  important  element 
in  flower,  resembling  so  nearly  as  it  does  animalized  matter. 
It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  Silician  yields  about  2  per 
cent  more  gluten  than  the  English,  which  enables  the  flour 
to  absorb  and  retain  a  much  larger  proportion  of  water  when 
made  into  bread.  This  is  what  is  termed  by  the  bakei*s, 
strength;  and  when  gluten  is  present  in  large  proportions, 
other  qualities  being  equal,  it  adds  materially  to  the  value  of 
flour.  American  wheat  also  contains  more  gluten  than 
English,  and  that  from  the  southern  states  still  more  than 
that  from  the  Northern.  An  eminent  baker  of  London 
says,  American  flour  will  absorb  from  8  to  14  per  cent, 
more  of  its  own  Aveight  of  water  when  manufactured  into 
bread  or  biscuit  than  their  own ;  and  another  reliable 
authority  asserts,  that  while  14  lbs  of  American  flour  will 
make  21  i  lbs  of  bread,  the  same  quantity  of  English  flour 
will  make  only  18  ^  lbs.  As  a  general  rule,  the  drier  or 
hotter  the  climate  in  which  the  grain  is  raised,  the  greater  is 
the  evaporation  and  the  more  condensed  is  the  farina  of  the 
grain,  and  consequently,  the  more  moisture  it  is  capable  of 
absorbing  when  again  exposed  to  it.  Certain  varieties  of 
wheat  possess  this  quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  others. 
Some  manures  and  some  soils  also  give  a  diflference  with 
the  same  seed,  but  for  ordinary  consumption,  the  market 
value  (which  is  the  great  consideration  with  the  farmer,)  is 
highest  for  such  wheat  as  gives  the  largest  quantity  of  bright 
flour,  with  a  due  proportion  of  gluten.  Other  prominent 
diiferences  exist  among  the  leading  cultivated  varieties  of 
wheat,  such  as  the  bearded  and  bald  or  beardless,  the  white 
and  red  chaff,  those  having  large  and  strong  stalks,  or  a 
greater  or  a  less  tendency  to  tiller,  or  to  send  out  new  stems, 
&c.,  «fcc.  There  is  great  room  for  selection  in  the  several 
varieties,  to  adapt  them  to  the  difl'erent  soils,  situations,  and 
climate  for  which  they  are  designed. 

Preparation    of   the  Land   for  Sowing. — Wheat  is 
partial  to  a  well-prepared  clay  or  heavy  loam,  and  this  is 


GRAIN   XyV   ITS   CULTIVATION.  l09 

improvcxl  when  it  contains  either  naturally  or  artificially  a 
large  proportion  of  lime.  Many  light  and  all  marly  or  cal- 
careous  soils,  if  in  proper  condition,  will  give  a  good  yield 
of  wheat.  Lime  is  an  important  aid  to  the  full  and  certain 
growth  of  wheat,  checking  its  exuberance  of  straw  and  its 
liability  to  rust,  and  steadily  aiding  to  fill  out  the  grain.  A 
rich  mellow  turf  or  clover  ley  is  a  good  bed  for  it ;  or  land 
which  has  been  well  manured  and  cleanly  cultivated  with 
roots  or  corn  the  preceding  year.  Fresh  barn-yard  manure 
applied  directly  to  the  wheat  crop,  is  objectionable,  not  only 
from  its  containing  many  foreign  seeds,  but  from  its  tendency 
to  excite  a  rapid  growth  of  weak  straw,  thus  causing  the 
grain  both  to  lodge  and  rust.  The  same  objection  lies 
against  sowing  it  on  rich  alluvial  or  v»?getablc  soils ;  and  in 
each,  the  addition  of  lime  or  ashes,  or  both,  will  correct  these 
evils.  A  dressing  of  charcoal  has  in  many  instances,  been 
found  an  adequate  preventive  ;  and  so  beneficial  has  it 
proved  in  France,  that  it  has  been  extensively  introduced 
there  for  the  wheat  crop.  A  successful  example  of  uninter- 
rupted cropping  with  wheat  through  several  years,  has  been 
furnished  by  a  Maryland  farmer,  who  used  fresh  barn-yard 
manure  with  lime.  But  this  is  an  exception  not  a  rule,  and 
it  will  be  found  that  profitable  cultivation  requires,  that  wheat 
should  take  its  place  in  a  judicious  rotation.  The  great  pro- 
portion of  silica  in  the  straw  of  cereal  grains,  (amounting  in 
wheat,  barley,  oats  and  rye,  to  about  four-fifths  of  the  total 
of  ash  from  the  grain  and  straw,)  shows  the  necessity  of 
having  ample  provision  made  for  it  in  the  soil,  in  a  form 
susceptible  of  ready  assimilation  by  the  plant.  This  is  af- 
forded both  ])y  ashes  and  from  the  action  of  lime  upon  the 
soil. 

Depth  of  soil  is  also  indispensable  to  large  crops.  The 
wheat  plant  has  two  sets  of  roots,  the  first  springing  from 
the  seed  and  penetrating  downwards,  while  the  second  push 
themselves  laterally  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  from  the 
tirst  joint.  They  are  thus  enabled  to  extract  their  food  from 
every  part  of  the  soil,  and  the  product  will  be  found  to  be  in 
the  ratio  of  its  extent  and  fertility.  Under-draining  and 
sub-soil  plowing  contribute  greatly  to  the  increase  of  crops, 
and  it  is  essential  that  any  surface  water  be  entirely  removed. 
Wheat  on  heavy  clay  lands  are  peculiarly  liable  to  winter 
kill  unless  they  are  well  drained.  This  is  owing  to  succes- 
sive freezing  and  thawing,  by  which  the  roots  are  broken 
or  thrown  out.     When  this  is  done  to  a  degree  that  will 


llO  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

materially  diminish  the  crop,  the  naked  spots  may  be  sown 
with  spring  wheal.  Any  considerable  portion  of  the  latter 
will  lessen  the  value  for  sale,  but  it  is  equally  good  for  domes- 
tic use.  The  land  should  be  duly  prepared  for  the  reception 
of  the  seed  by  early  and  thorough  plowing,  and  harrowing 
if  necessary. 

Selection  and  Preparation  of  Seed. — Many  persons 
select  their  seed  by  casting  or  throwing  the  grain  to  some 
distance  on  the  floor,  using  only  such  as  reaches  the  farthest. 
This  is  a  summary  way  of  selecting  the  heaviest,  plumpest 
grain,  which  if  Sprengel's  theory  be  correct,  is  attended 
with  no  advantage  beyond  that  of  separating  it  from  the 
lighter  seeds  of  chess  or  weeds.  It  is  certain  that  the  utmost 
care  should  be  taken  in  removing  every  thing  from  it  but 
pure  wheat,  and  this  should  be  exclusively  of  the  kind 
required.  When  wheat  is  not  thoroughly  cleaned  by  casting, 
a  sieve  or  riddle  should  be  used,  or  it  should  even  be  picked 
over  by  hand,  rather  than  sow  anything  but  the  pure  seed. 
Previous  to  sowing,  a  strong  brine  should  be  made  of  salt 
and  soft  water,  and  in  this  the  grain  should  be  washed  for 
live  minutes,  taking  care  to  skim  olf  all  light  and  foreign 
seeds.  If  the  grain  be  smutty  this  washing  should  be 
repeated  in  another  clean  brine,  when  it  may  be  taken 
out  and  intimately  mixed  with  one-twelfth  its  bulk  of  fresh 
pulverized  quick  lime.  This  kills  all  smut,  cleans  out 
weeds  from  the  grain,  and  insures  early  rapid  growth. 
When  the  seed  is  not  smutty,  it  may  be  prepared  by  soaking 
or  sprinkling  it  with  stale  urine  and  afterwards  mix  with  the 
lime  ;  and  if  well  done  this  also  will  prevent  smut  though 
the  first  is  most  certain.  (See  "  varieties  of  seed  "  following 
for  further  directions.) 

Quantity  of  Seed  and  time  of  Sowing. —  On  well 
pulverized,  ordinary  wheat  soils,  about  5  pecks  of  seed  is 
sown  to  the  acre,  while  rough  land,  clay  soils  and  such  as 
are  very  fertile,  require  from  G  to  8.  In  Maryland,  but  3 
pecks  are  frequently  sown  to  the  acre,  and  some  of  the  best 
crops  have  been  raised  from  only  2  pecks  of  seed  on  a  finely 
pulverized  soil.  It  takes  more  seed  when  iidl  and  plump 
than  when  shrunken,  as  there  may  be  nearly  tv*'o  of  the  lat- 
ter to  one  of  the  former  in  the  same  measure.  A  difference 
is  to  be  observed  according  to  the  kind  of  wheat,  some  need- 
ing more  than  others.  A  larger  quantity  of  seed  produces  an 
earlier  growth  of  lighter  straw  and  head,  but  does  not  usually 
increase  the  aggregate  crop.     There  is  always  a  tendency 


GRAIN   AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  Ill 

ill  wheat  and  most  of  the  cereal  grasses  to  tiller  or  send  out 
new  shoots  for  future  stalks.  This  is  a  law  of  these  plant.^, 
which  compels  them  to  make  the  greatest  etibrt  to  cover  the 
whole  grouud,  and  sometimes  a  single  seed  will  throw 
out  more  than  100  stalks.  In  early  sowing,  the  wheat  tillers 
in  the  autumn  ;  in  late  sowing  this  is  done  in  part  only  till 
the  ensuing  spring.  Thick  sowing  is  a  substitute  for  tiller- 
ing to  the  extent  that  would  otherwise  be  induced,  and  is 
equivalent  to  earlier  sowing  of  a  smaller  quantity.  The  time 
for  sowing  in  our  Northern  states  is  from  the  10th  to  20th 
September.  If  sown  earlier  it  is  liable  to  attack  from  the 
Hessian  fly,  and  if  later,  it  does  not  have  time  to  root  as  well, 
and  is  in  more  danger  of  being  thrown  out  by  the  frost  or  of 
winter  killing.  Late  sowing  is  also  more  subject  to  rust  the 
following  season  iVom  its  later  ripening. 

Sowing. — When  the  ground  has  been  well  mellowed,  the 
seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  and  thoroughly  harrowed  in. 
Rolling  is  a  good  practice  as  it  presses  the  earth  closely  upon 
the  seed  and  facilitates  germination,  and  as  soon  as  the  seed 
is  covered  the  water  furrows  should  be  cleaned  out,  and  again 
late  in  autumn  and  early  in  the  foUow^ing  spring.  In  nor- 
thern Europe  it  has  been  found  a  preventive  against  w-inter 
killing  on  strong  clays,  to  sow  the  wheat  in  the  bottom  of 
each  furrow  6  inches  deep,  and  cover  it  with  the  succeeding 
one.  The  wheat  thus  planted,  comes  up  as  soon  as  on  the 
fields  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed,  grows  more  vigorously, 
withstands  the  winters  and  produces  large  crops.  Lightly 
plowing  in  wheat  is  perhaps  under  any  circumstances  better 
than  harrowing,  as  the  wheat  is  thereby  all  buried,  and  at  a 
more  suitable  depth  than  can  be  done  by  the  harrow.  The 
roughness  of  the  furrows  when  left  without  harrowing,  is 
advantageous  in  heavy  or  clay  lands,  and  only  injurious  in 
light  or  sandy. 

After  Cllture. — Harrowing  in  the  spring  by  loosening 
the  soil,  adds  to  the  growth  of  the  crop,  and  the  loss  of  the 
kw  plants  is  much  more  than  compensated  by  the  rapid 
tillering  and  vigor  of  those  w^hich  remain.  Sowing  in  drills 
and  hoeing  between  them  is  much  practiced  in  Europe. 
The  additional  amount  thus  frequently  raised  would  seem  to 
justify  the  adoption  of  this  mode  of  cultivation  in  this  coun- 
try;  and  it  should  at  least  be  done  so  far  as  to  give  it  a  fair 
trial.  On  light  soils,  rolling  the  wheat  both  in  fall  and 
spring  is  highly  advantageous.  When  the  growth  is  luxu- 
riant, decided  benefit  has  attended  feeding  off  the  wheat  on 


113  A3IERICAN    AGBICrLTURE. 

the  field  in  the  fall  or  spring,  taking  care  to  permit  the  ani- 
mals to  go  on  only  when  the  ground  is  firm. 

Enemies  of  Wheat. — These  are  numerous.  It  is  subject 
to  the  attack  of  the  Hessian  Fly  if  sown  too  early  in  the 
fall,  and  again  the  ensuing  spring,  there  being  two  annual 
swarms  of  the  fly  early  in  May  and  September.  When  thus 
invaded,  harrowing  or  rolling,  by  which  the  maggots  or  flies 
are  displaced  or  driven  oflT  is  the  only  remedy  of  much  avail. 
Occasionally  other  flies,  and  sometimes  wheat  worms  com- 
mit great  depredations.  There  is  no  eflfectual  remedy  known 
against  any  of  these  marauders,  beyond  rolling,  brushing 
and  harrowing.  Dusting  the  grain  with  lime,  ashes  and 
soot,  have  been  frequently  tried,  as  have  also  the  sprinkling 
them  with  urine,  dilute  acids,  dec;  and  also  by  fumigating 
them  in  the  evening  when  the  smoke  creeps  along  through 
the  standing  grain.  For  this  last  purpose  a  smouldering 
heap  of  damp  brush,  weeds,  or  chips,  is  placed  on  the  wind- 
ward  side  of  the  field,  and  its  eflficacy  may  be  increased  by 
the  addition  of  brimstone.  Whenever  obnoxious  to  these 
attacks,  the  only  safety  is  to  place  the  crop  in  the  best  con- 
dition to  withstand  them  by  hastening  its  growth,  and  by 
the  propagation  of  the  most  hardy  varieties.  An  application 
of  unleached  ashes  in  damp  weather  will  sometimes  dimin- 
ish  the  ravages  of  worms  at  the  root.  Quck  lime  has  the 
same  effect  on  all  insects  with  which  it  comes  in  contact, 
but  it  should  be  carefully  applied  to  avoid  injury  to  the 
plants. 

Smut  is  a  dark  brown  or  blackish  parasitic  fungus,  which 
grows  upon  the  head  and  destroys  the  grain.  The  only  rem- 
edy for  this,  is  washing  in  two  or  three  successive  strong 
brines,  and  intimately  mixing  and  coating  the  seed  with 
quick  lime. 

Rust  affects  the  straw  of  wheat  while  the  grain  is  form- 
ing and  before  it  is  fully  matured.  It  is  almost  always  pres- 
ent  in  the  field,  but  is  not  extensively  injurious  except  in 
muggy  (close,  showery  and  hot)  weather.  The  straw  then 
bursts  from  the  exuberance  of  the  sap,  which  is  seen  to 
exude,  and  a  crust  or  iron  colored  rust  is  formed  in  longitu- 
dinal ridges  on  the  stalk.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  this 
rust  is  a  fungus  or  minute  parasitic  plant  which  subsists  on 
the  sap ;  but  whether  it  be  the  cause  or  consequence  of  this 
exudation  is  not  fully  determined.  There  is  no  remedy  for 
thiswhen  it  appears,  and  the  only  mitigation  of  its  effects, 
is  to  cut  and  harvest  the  grain  at  once.     The  straw  in  this 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  Il3 

case  will  be  saved,  and  frequently  a  tolerable  crop  of  grain 
which  partially  matures  after  cutting ;  while  if  sulFered  to 
stand,  both  straw  and  grain  will  be  almost  totally  lost.  The 
only  preventives  experience  has  hitherto  found,  are  the  selec- 
tion of  hardy  varieties  of  grain  \vhich  partially  resist  the 
etfecis  of  rust ;  sowing  on  elevated  lands  where  the  air  has  a 
free  circulation  ;  the  abundant  use  of  saline  manures,  salt, 
lime,  gypsum,  and  charcoal ;  the  absence  of  recent  animal 
manures  ;  and  early  sowing  which  matures  the  plant  before 
the  disease  commences  its  attack. 

Harvestixc}. — The  grain  should  be  cut  immediately  after 
the  lowest;  part  of  the  stalk  becomes  yellow,  while  the  grain 
is  yet  in  the  dough  state  and  is  easily  compressible  between 
the  thumb  and  linger.  Repeated  experiments  have  demon- 
strated  that  wheat  cut  tlien,  will  yield  more  in  measure,  of 
heavier  weight,  and  a  larger  quantity  of  sweet  white  flour. 
If  early  cut,  a  longer  time  is  required  for  curing  before 
threshing  or  storing. 

Threshing  is  usually  done  among  extensive  farmers,  with 
some  one  of  the  large  horse  machines  taken  into  the  field. 
The  use  of  machines  enables  the  farmer  to  raise  some  of  the 
choicest  kinds  of  grain,  whose  propagation  was  limited  before 
their  introduction,  by  the  great  difficulty  of  separating  the  grain 
from  the  head.  He  can  also  push  his  wheat  into  the  market 
at  once  if  the  price  is  high,  which  is  frequently  the  case  im- 
mediately after  harvest ;  and  they  save  all  expense  and  trou- 
ble of  moving,  storiiig,  loss  from  shelling,  and  vermin,  inte- 
rest, insurance,  &;c.  For  the  moderate  farmer,  a  small,  single 
or  double  horse  machine,  or  hand  threshing  in  winter  where 
there  is  leisure  for  it,  is  more  economical  than  the  6  or  8 
horse  thresher. 

Mowing  or  stacking. —  When  stored  in  the  straw,  the 
grain  should  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent  heating  or  molding. 
This  can  only  be  avoided,  unless  very  dry  before  carrying 
into  the  barn,  by  laying  it  on  scaffolds  where  there  is  a  free 
circulation  of  air  around  and  partially  through  it.  If  placed 
in  a  stack,  it  should  be  well  elevated  from  the  ground  ;  and  if 
the  stacks  are  large,  a  chimney  of  lattice  or  open  work  should 
be  left  from  the  bottom  running  through  the  centre  to  the 
top  ;  or  a  large  bundle  may  be  kept  at  the  surface  in  the 
centre,  and  drawn  upwards  as  the  stack  rises,  thus  leaving 
an  opening  from  the  bottom  to  the  roof.  Additional  security 
would  be  afforded  by  similar  openings  horizontally  at  suitable 
intervals,   so  as  to  admit  the  air  from  one  side  to  the  other. 


114  AMERICAN    AGRICULTrRE. 

Mice  and  rats  may  be  avoided  by  laying  the  foundation  of  the 
stack  on  posts  or  stones  elevated  beyond  their  reach,  and 
covered  at  the  top  with  projeetinjj;  caps.  Weevils  sometimes 
affect  the  grain  after  storing.  These  may  be  almost  if  not 
wholly  prevented  by  thorough  cleanliness  of  the  premises 
where  the  grain  is  stored. 

The  straw  and  cluiff  of  wheat  should  never  be  wasted. 
This  is  the  most  nutritious  of  the  cereal  straws,  and  yields 
good  fodder  to  cattle  in  time  of  scarcity,  and  is  always  valu- 
able for  tliis  object  when  cut  and  mixed  with  meal  or  roots  ; 
and  particularly  when  early  harvested  and  well  cured.  Tur- 
neps  and  straw  are  the  only  food  of  half  the  cattle  and  most  of 
the  sheej)  throughout  Great  Britain,  and  nowhere  do  they 
thrive  more  or  better  remunerate  their  owners  than  in  that 
country.  It  is  of  great  use  also  as  bedding  for  cattle,  and  as 
an  absorbent  of  animal  and  liquid  manures.  It  furnishes  in 
itself  the  best  manure  for  succeding  grain  crops  ;  containing 
large  proportions  of  the  salts  or  ash  required.  When  thresh- 
ed on  the  field,  and  not  wanted  for  cattle,  it  should  be  scat- 
tered over  the  ground  and  either  plowed  in  or  suffered  to  de- 
cay on  the  surface. 

Varieties  of  seed. — Much  depends  on  the  judicious  selec- 
tion of  seed.  Some  soils  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  wheat  grow- 
ing, and  on  these  should  be  sown  the  finest  varieties,  which 
are  generally  of  a  more  delicate  character.  Wheat  on  other 
soils,  is  liable  to  many  casualties,  and  on  such  only  the  har- 
dier kinds  should  be  propagated.  Careful  and  repeated  expe- 
riments with  different  varieties  of  seeds,  on  each  field  or  on 
those  which  are  similar,  will  alone  determine  their  adaptation 
to  the  soil.  There  are  several  choice  varieties  of  winter 
wheat  in  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  some  of  which 
stand  higher  in  one,  and  some  in  another  section.  Some  in 
high  repute  abroad,  have  been  introduced  into  this  country 
and  proved  to  be  valuable  acquisitions,  while  others  have 
been  found  on  trial,  decidedly  inferior  to  many  of  the  long 
adopted  varieties.  Experiment  alone  will  enable  the  farmer 
to  decide  as  to  theii*.  value  for  his  own  grounds,  however 
high  they  may  stand  elsewhere.  When  of  a  fine  qjiality  and 
found  to  produce  well  on  any  given  soils,  their  place  should 
not  be  usurped  by  others  till  repeated  trials  have  shown  their 
superiority  either  in  yield  or  quality.  But  when  the  acclima. 
ted  grain  is  inferior,  other  seed  from  remote  distances,  even 
if  no  better  in  quality,  mg^-  properly  be  substituted  for  it,  as  a 
decided   benefit   has  been  found    to  follow    an  exchange. 


GRAIN    AND    ITS   CULTIVATION.  115 

Wheat  and  nearly  all  seeds  are  found  to  be  more  productive 
when  taken  from  a  soil  inferior  to  the  one  intended  for  sow- 
ing ;  and  it  is  claimed  that  what  is  produced  both  in  a  warmer 
and  colder  climate  will  mature  earlier.  It  is  not  essonlial 
that  the  fullest,  heaviest  grain  be  sown.  Sprengel  aflirms 
that  seed  somewhat  shrunken  is  more  certain  to  give  a  good 
yield  than  the  choicest  seed  ;  and  numerous  trials  would 
seem  to  favor  this  conclusion.  The  grain  designed  for  seed 
should  be  well  ripened  befJire  harvesting.  From  the  ever 
varying  character  of  the  different  kinds  of  seed,  their  superi- 
ority at  one  time  and  on  one  locality,  and  their  inferiority  at 
other  times  and  in  other  situations,  it  seems  almost  superflu- 
ous to  give  a  particular  enumeration  of  the  present  most  pop- 
ular kinds.  A  brief  mention  of  such  only  as  stand  high  in 
public  favor  in  this  country,  with  some  of  their  most  striking 
peculiarities,  is  all  that  our  limits  will  admit. 

The  improved  flint  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  fine 
wheat  growing  country  of  western  New- York;  where  it  was 
introduced  in  1822.  It  is  hardy  and  withstands  the  winters 
remarkably  well.  A  striking  improvement  in  the  strength  of 
its  straw  has  been  observed,  which  at  first  inclined  to  kidge, 
but  it  is  now  erect  and  firm  till  fully  ripened.  The  heads 
are  also  fuller  and  longer  than  when  first  introduced  ;  the 
berry  is  plump  and  white,  yielding  a  large  proportion  of  choice 
flour  ;  and  it  is  retained  in  the  head  with  great  tenacity  which 
is  a  decided  advantage  for  econamy  in  harvesting,  where 
threshing  machines  are  substituted  for  the  flail. 

The  old  Genesee  red  chaff  y?,  a  bald  white  wheat,  first  cul- 
tivated in  the  same  region  in  1T98 ;  and  for  a  long  time  it 
was  the  decided  favorite.  Since  1820  however,  it  has  been 
very  subject  to  rust  and  blast,  but.  when  circumstances  are 
favorable  it  is  still  found  to  be  highly  productive.  Its  trans- 
fer to  other  localitities,  may  therefore  be  attended  with  great 
success. 

The  while  May  of  Virginia  was  a  choice  variety  and  exten- 
sively  raised  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Chesapeake  bay  in 
1800,  but  is  now  nearly  extinct  there.  It  has  been  cultivated 
in  New- York  for  10  years,  is  a  good  bearer,  very  heavy ; 
weighing  frequently  66  lbs.  per  bushel,  and  ripens  early,  by 
which  it  escapes  rust. 

The  Wheatland  red  is  a  new  variety  discovered  and  propa- 
gated by  Gen.  Harmon  of  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y.,  by  whom  it  is 
held  in  high  estimation.     It  produces  w^ell  and  ripens  early. 


116  AMEBIC  AN     AORICULTrRE. 

Tlie  Kentucky  white  bearded,  Hutchinson  or  Canadian  ft inl 
is  very  pojuilar  in  Western  New.  York  wlieie  it  has  been  ra- 
pidly disseminated  since  its  first  introdnction  sonc  12  years 
since.  It  is  hardy,  a  good  yielder,  witli  a  sliort  phnnp  berry, 
weigliing  04  lb-,  per  Inishel.  It  retjiiires  thicker  sowing 
(about  25  per  cent,  more  seed)  than  the  improved  dint,  as  it 
does  uol  tiller  as  well,  an;l  unlike  that  it  shells  easily,  wasting 
much  unless  cut  cjiute  early. 

The  English  velvet  heard  or  Crate  wlieat  has  a  coarse  straw, 
large  heads,  a  good  berry  of  a  reddish  hue,  and  is  well  adapt- 
ed to  the  rich  alluvial  bottom  lands,  where  its  firm  straw  pre- 
vents its  lodging.  It  is  a  lair  yielder  and  tolerably  hardy,  but 
its  long  beard  is  a  great  objection  to  its  intro-luction  on  such 
lands  as  are  suited  to  the  thier  kinds. 

The  Yarhshire  or  English  flint  or  Soules  wheat  has  been 
recently  introduced,  and  is  similar  in  its  leading  features  to 
T^he  old  Genesee. 

The  white  Provence  is  a  new  and  favorite  variety,  but  its 
slender  stalk  frequently  subjects  it  to  lodging.  It  is  only  suit- 
ed to  the  finest  calcareous  wheat  soils. 

The  blue  stem  has  been  raised  with  great  success  in  Union, 
Penn.,  where  it  resisted  smut  and  rust  when  all  other  kinds 
in  the  Vicinity  were  ailected  by  it. 

The  Mediterranean  is  a  coarse  wheat  with  a  thick  skin, 
yielding  a  dark  tlom*.  It  resists  rust  and  the  fly,  is  a  good 
bearer,  and  may  be  prolitably  grown  where  other  choice  kinds 
fail. 

Tfie  Egyptian^  Smt/ma^  Reed,  Many  spiked,  or  Wild  goose 
wheat  is  also  a  hardy  variety,  with  a  thick,  heavy  straw  \vhich 
prevents  its  lodging. 

PuonrcTioN  OF  NEW  VARIETIES  OF  WHEAT. — Bcsidcs  in- 
troducing valuable  kinds  from  abroad  and  the  improvement  by 
careful  cultivation  of  such  as  we  now  have,  new  varieties 
may  be  secured  by  hybridizing  or  crossing.  This  is  done  by 
impregnating  the  female  organs  of  the  flowers  on  one  plant, 
by  the  pollen  from  the  male  organ  of  another.  The  progeny 
s^netimes  materially  differs  tVoni  bolh  parents,  and  occasion- 
ally partaki*s  of  the  leading  (pialilies  of(^ach.  Among  those 
thus  prwluced,  some  may  be  found  of  peculiar  excellence  and 
worthy  of  supplanting  others  whose  value  is  declining.  The 
effect  of  this  crossing  is  striking  in  the  ear  of  corn,  where  the 
red  and  white,  the  blue  and  yellow  kernels  arc  seen  to  blern 
in  singular  confusion  over  the  whole  ear,  each  differing  too 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  117 

in  size,  shape  and  general  qualities.  Observation  will  some- 
times detect  a  new  variety  of  wheat  in  the  field,  self  hybridi- 
zed, the  result  of  an  accidental  cross.  If  this  has  superior 
merit,  it  should  be  carefully  secured  and  planted  in  a  bod  by 
itself  for  future  seed. 

Propagation  may  be  extended  with  incredible  rapidity  by 
dividing  the  plant.  The  English  Philosophical  Transactions 
give  the  result  of  a  trial  made  by  planting  a  single  grain  on 
the  2d  of  J  une ;  on  the  8th  of  August  it  was  taken  up  and 
separated  into  18  parts  and  each  planted  by  itself.  These 
were  subdivided  and  planted  between  15th  of  September  and 
ISthof  October,  and  again  the  following  rjpiing.  From  this 
careful  attention  in  a  fertile  soil,  500  plants  were  obtained, 
some  containing  100  stalks  bearing  heads  of  a  large  size  ; 
and  the  total  produce  within  the  year  was  386.840  grains 
from  the  single  one  planted. 

Spring  VVheat. — This  requires  a  soil  similar  to  that  of 
winter  grain,  but  it  should  be  of  a  quick  r.nd  kindly  charac- 
ter as  it  has  a  much  shorter  time  to  mature.  Ths  ground 
should  be  well  pulverized  and  fertile.  The  best  crops  are 
raised  on  land  that  has  been  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  sown 
without  additional  plowing,  taking  care  to  harrow  in  tho- 
roughly. When  planted  early,  the  v/heat  rarely  suffers 
from  the  fly  as  it  attains  a  size  and  vigor  beyond  the  reach 
of  injury  before  it  appears.  In  certain  localities  where  the 
fly  abounds  and  the  wheat  has  not  been  early  sown,  it  is 
found  necessary  to  keep  back  the  young  plants  till  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  fly.  Large  croj)S  have  been  obtained  under 
favorable  circumstances,  when  sown  as  late  as  the  20th  May. 

Varieties. — The  Black  Sea  Wheat  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  kinds  at  present  cultivated.  Of  this  there  are  two 
varieties,  the  red  and  the  white  chaff,  both  of  which  are 
bearded.  The  former  is  generally  preferred.  This  wheat 
has  yielded  very  pmfitable  crops.  The  Siberian  is  a  valua- 
ble wheat,  and  has  been  much  raised  in  this  country.  It 
produces  a  full,  fine  grain,  is  hardy  and  a  good  bearer. 
The  Italian  has  been  much  cultivated,  and  held  in  high  esti- 
mation, but  it  is  now  generally  giving  place  to  the  pre- 
ceding where  each  has  been  tried. 

There  are  some  other  varieties  which  bear  well  and  are 
tolerably  hardy.  Excellent  spring  grain  has  been  produced 
by  early  sowing  from  choice  winter  wheat,  which  has 
retained  most  of  the  characteristics  of  the  original  under  its 


118  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

new  summer  culture.  In  large  sections  of  this  country- 
wheat  has  been  seriously  injured  by  vvinler-kiliing  and  other 
casualties;  and  wherever  these  prevail  and  the  soil  is  suited 
to  it,  summer  wheat  may  be  advantageously  introduced.  A 
proper  attention  to  the  selection  of  seed  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil  will  generally  insure  a  profitable  return. 
If  its  market  value  is  not  as  high,  it  may  at  least  afford 
all  that  the  farmer  and  his  laborers  require;  and  he  will 
generally  find  if  not  in  a  wheat-growing  region,  that  he 
can  dispose  of  his  surplus  crop  among  his  neighbors  before 
the  next  harvest  comes  round  and  at  satisfactory  prices. 

RYE  (Sccale  screale) 

Is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  northeastern  and  middle 
Atlantic  states.  It  is  grown  on  the  light  lands  of  Ohio 
ajjd  Michigan,  and  as  the  supporting  elements  of  wheat 
become  exhausted  in  the  soil  of  the  rich  agricultural  states 
of  the  west,  it  will  take  its  place  in  a  great  measure  on 
their  lighter  soils.  Most  of  the  Eastern  and  Atlantic  states 
when  first  subjected  to  cultivation,  produced  wheat ;  but 
where  lime  did  not  exist  in  the  soil  the  wheat  crop  soon  failed, 
and  it  has  gradually  receded  from  the  Atlantic  border,  except 
in  marly  or  calcareous  soils  or  those  that  were  reclaimed  by 
a  plentiful  addition  of  lime,  rye  almost  universally  succeeding 
it.  But  the  liberal  use  of  lime  with  the  agriculteral  improve- 
ments of  the  present  day  are  regaining  for  wheat  much  of  its 
ancient  territory. 

Rye  resembles  wheat  in  its  bread-making  properties,  and 
for  this  purpose  is  only  second  to  it  in  those  countries  where 
it  is  cultivated.  There  is  a  peculiar  aroma  attached  to  the 
husk  of  the  grain,  which  is  not  found  in  the  finely  bolted 
flovn*.  The  grain  when  ground  and  unbolted  is  much  used 
in  the  New-England  states  for  mixing  into  loaves  Avith  scalded 
Indian  meal ;  it  is  then  baked  for  a  long  time  and  is  known 
as  rye-and- Indian  or  hroun  bread.  This  possesses  a  sweet- 
ness and  flavor  peculiar  to  itself,  which  is  doubtless  owing 
i^  no  small  degree  to  the  quality  above  mentioned.  Von 
ITiaer  says  "  this  substance  appears  to  lacilitatc  digestion 
and  has  a  singularly  strengthening,  refreshing  and  beneficial 
effect  on  the  animal  frame,"  Kye  is  more  hardy  than  wheat 
and  is  a  substitute  for  it  on  those  soils  which  will  not  grow 
the  latter  grain  with  certainty  and  profit.  > 

Soil  and  Cultivation. — Neither  strong  clay  or  calcare- 
ous  lands  arc  well  suited  to  it.     A  rich  sandv  loam  is  tho 


GRAIN   AND   ITS    CULTIVATION.  119 

natural  soil  for  rye,  though  it  grows  freely  on  light  sands  and 
gravels  which  refuse  to  produce  either  wheat,  barley  or  oats. 
Loamy  soils  that  are  too  rich  for  wheat  and  on  which  it 
almost  invariably  lodges,  will  frequently  raise  an  excellent 
crop  of  rye,  its  stronger  stem  enabling  it  to  sustain  itself  under 
its  luxuriant  growth. 

The  Preparation  of  thi:  Soil  for  Rye,  is  similar  to 
that  for  wheat ;  and  it  may  be  advantageously  sown  upon  a 
rich  old  turf  or  clover  ley,  or  after  corn  or  roots  where  the 
land  has  been  well  manured  and  thoroughly  cleansed  from 
weeds.  There  is  not  an  equal  necessity  for  using  a  brine- 
steep  for  rye  as  for  wheat,  yet  if  allowed  to  remain  a  few  hours 
in  a  weak  solution  of  saltpetre  or  some  of  the  other  salts,  it 
promotes  speedy  germination  and  subsequent  growth. 

Sowing. — There  is  but  one  species  of  rye,  but  to  this  cul- 
tivation has  given  two  varieties,  the  spring  and  winter.  Like 
wheat  they  are  easily  transformed  into  each  other  by  sowing 
the  winter  continually  later  through  successive  generations  to 
change  it  into  spring  grain,  and  the  opposite  for  its  reconver- 
sion into  winter  grain.  The  last  should  be  sown  from  the 
20th  of  August  to  the  20th  of  September ,  the  earliest  requi- 
ring less  seed,  as  it  has  a  longer  time  to  tiller  and  fill  up  the 
ground.  Five  pecks  is  the  usual  quantity  sown,  but  it  varies 
from  one  to  two  bushels  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil, 
the  richest  lands  demanding  most.  It  is  a  practice  among 
many  farmers  to  sow  rye  among  their  standing  corn  on  light 
lands,  hoeing  it  in  and  leaving  the  ground  as  level  as  poss- 
ble.  On  such  lands  this  is  attended  with  several  advantages, 
as  it  gives  the  grain  an  early  start  and  a  moist,  sheltered  po- 
sition, at  a  time  when  drought  and  a  hot  sun  would  check 
or  prevent  vegetation.  As  soon  as  the  corn  is  sufficiently 
matured,  it  should  be  cut  up  by  the  roots  and  placed  in  com- 
pact shocks,  or  removed  to  one  side  of  the  field,  when  the  rye 
should  be  thoroughly  rolled.  When  sown  on  a  fresh  plowed 
field,  it  should  be  harrowed  in  before  rolling.  Great  success 
has  attended  the  turning  in  of  green  crops  and  following  the 
fresh  plowing  with  instant  sowing  of  the  seed.  This  1j*ings 
it  forward  at  once.  No  after  cultivation  is  needed  except 
harrowing  in  spring  and  again  rolling  if  the  land  is  light,  both 
of  which  are  beneficial,  for  though  some  of  the  stools  may  be 
thus  destroyed,  the  working  of  the  ground  assists  the  remain- 
ing plants  so  as  to  leave  a  great  advantage  in  favor  of  the 
practice.  A  friend  of  the  writer  had  occasion  to  plow  some 
land  in  the  spring  which  joined  a  field  of  rye  belonging  to  a 


120  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

neighbor.  The  owner  claimed  damages  for  supposed  injury 
by  the  team  and  plow,  which  it  was  agreed  should  be  assessed 
on  examination  after  harvesting,  when  it  appeared,  that  the 
damaged  part  was  the  best  of  the  whole  field.  An  honest 
English  yeoman  received  several  pounds  from  a  liberal 
squire,  for  alleged  injury  to  his  young  grain  from  the  tram- 
pling of  horses  and  hounds  in  hot  chase  after  a  fox  ;  but  at 
harvest  he  found  the  crop  so  much  benefitted  by  the  operation 
that  he  voluntarily  returned  the  money.  If  the  rye  is  luxuri- 
ant, it  may  be  fed  both  in  the  fall  and  spring.  Early  cutting 
as  in  wheat  produces  more  weight,  larger  measure  and 
whiter  flour.  What  is  intended  for  seed,  must  however  be 
allowed  to  ripen  fully  on  the  ground. 

Diseases. — Rye  is  subject  to  fewer  casualties  than  wheat. 
Ergot  or  cockspur  frequently  affects  it.  This  fungus  is  dis- 
covered not  only  on  rye,  but  on  other  plants  of  the  order 
graminse.  Several  of  these  elongated,  curved  and  brownish 
spurs  appear  on  a  single  head,  and  they  are  most  frequent  in 
hot,  wet  seasons.  They  are  poisonous  both  to  man  and 
beast,  and  when  eaten  freely  they  have  generated  fatal  epi- 
demics in  the  community;  and  emaciation,  debility  and  in 
some  cases  death  to  animals  consuming  it.  The  sloughing 
of  the  hoofs  and  horns  of  cattle  has  been  attributed  to  ergot 
in  their  grass  and  grain.  Riist  like  that  which  affects  the 
wheat  crop,  and  owing  probably  to  the  same  causes,  attacks 
rye.  When  this  happens  it  shonld  be  cut  and  harvested 
without  delay. 

Rye  for  Soiling  is  sometimes  sown  by  those  who  wish  late 
forage  in  autumn  and  early  in  spring.  For  this  purpose  it 
should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  2  to  4  bushels  per  acre.  If  on 
a  fertile  soil  and  not  too  closely  pastured,  it  will  bear  u 
good  crop  of  grain;  and  in^some  cases  when  too  rank,  early 
feeding  will  strengthen  the  stalk  and  increase  the  grain. 

BARLEY  {Tlordeum) 
Is  a  grain  of  extensive  cultivation  and  great  value.  Like 
wheat  and  rye,  it  is  both  a  winter  and  spring  grain,  though 
m  fliis  country  it  is  almost  univereally  sown  in  the  spring. 
There  are  six  varieties,  differing  in  no  essential  points  and  all 
originating  from  the  same  source.  Loudon  says  in  choosing 
for  seed,  '*  the  best  is  that  which  is  free  from  blackness  at 
the  tail,  and  is  of  a  pale  lively  yellow,  intermixed  with  a  bright 
whitish  cast ;  and  if  the  rind  be  a  little  shrivelled  so  much  tne 
better,  as  it  indicates  thin  skin.     The  husk  of  thick-rindjjd 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVAtlON.  121 

barley  la  too  stiff  to  shrink  and  will  lie  smooth  and  hollow 
even  when  the  flour  is  shrunk  within.  The  necessity  of  a 
change  of  seed  from  time  to  time,  for  that  grown  in  a  different 
soil,  is  in  no  instance  more  evident  than  in  this  grain,  which 
otherwise  becomes  coarser  every  successive  year.  But  in 
this  as  in  all  other  grain,  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  seed  is  full  bodied.'' 

The  principal  varieties  are  the  two  and  six  rowed  ;  the  last 
being  preferred  for  hardiness  and  productiveness  in  Europe, 
and  the  first  generally  cultivated  in  this  country  for  its  supe- 
rior fulness  and  freedom  from  smut.  There  are  numerous 
sub-varieties,  such  as  the  Hudson's  Bay  which  ripens  very 
early  and  Ijears  abundantly  ;  the  Chevalier  and  Providence, 
both  accidental,  of  which  a  single  stalk  was  first  discovered 
among  others  of  the  ordinary  kinds,  and  proving  superior  and 
of  luxuriant  growth,  they  were  widely  propagated  :  tiie 
Peruvian,  Egyptian,  &-c.  New  varieties  may  be  produced 
by  crossing,  as  with  wheat. 

Soil. — Barley  requires  a  lighter  soil  than  will  grow  good 
wheat,  and  a  heavier  than  will  grow  tolerable  rye  ;  but  in 
all  cases  it  must  be  one  that  is  well  drained.  A  mellow  rich 
loam,  ranging  between  light  sand  or  gravel  and  heavy  clay, 
is  best  suited  to  it. 

Cultivation. — It  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
sufficiently  dry  in  spring,  on  a  grass  or  clover  ley  turned  over 
(he  preceding  fall ;  or  it  may  follow  a  well  manured  and 
cleanly  hoed  crop.  If  sown  on  a  sod  it  should  be  lightly 
plowed  in,  but  not  so  deep  as  to  disturb  it,  and  afterwardis 
harrowed  or  rolled.  The  soil  should  always  be  well  pulver- 
ized. From  1 J  to  2i  bushels  per  acre  is  the  usual  allowance 
of  seed,  poor  and  mellow  soils,  and  early  sown,  requiring  the 
least.  Barley  should  never  follow  the  other  white  grains, 
nor  should  they  succeed  each  other  unless  upon  very  rich 
soil.  No  farmer  can  long  depart  from  this  rule  without 
serious  detriment  to  his  soil  and  crops.  Baniyard  manures 
should  not  be  applied  directly  to  this  grain  unless  it  be  a  light 
dressing  of  compost  on  indifferent  soils  ;  or  in  moderate 
quantity  after  the  plants  have  commenced  growing  in  spring. 
When  the  plants  are  4  or  5  inches  high,  rolling  will  be  of 
service  if  the  ground  is  dry  and  not  compact.  This  operation 
gives  support  to  the  roots,  destroys  insects,  multiplies  seed 
stalks  and  increases  their  vigor. 

Destroying  weeds  in  grain, — When  grain  is  infested  with 
cockle,  wild  mustard  or  other  weeds,  they  should  be  extirpa- 
E 


122  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

ted  by  hand  before  they  are  fairly  in  blossom.  If  neglected 
till  sometime  after  this,  the  seed  is  so  well  matured  as  to 
ripen  after  pulling,  and  if  then  thrown  upon  the  ground  they 
will  defeat  the  effort  for  their  removal.  When  too  luxuriant, 
barley  like  rye  may  be  fed  off  for  a  few  days,  but  not  too 
closely. 

The  Harvesting  of  barley  should  be  seasonably  done 
or  its  extreme  liability  to  shell  will  cause  much  waste,  and 
on  the  contrary,  it  will  shrivel  if  cut  before  fully  matured. 
It  may  be  stacked  like  wheat. 

The  uses  of  Barley  are  various  and  important.  In 
Europe  it  forms  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  food  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  grain  yields  from  80  to  86  per  cent,  of 
flour,  which  however  contains  but  6  per  cent,  of  gluten  ;  7 
per  cent,  being  sacharine  matter  and  79  mucilage  or  starch. 
It  is  inferior  in  nutriment  to  wheat  and  rye  but  superior  to 
oats.  In  this  country  it  is  principally  used  for  malting  and 
brewing  and  in  some  cases  for  distilling,  but  when  ground  is 
more  generally  appropriated  to  fattening  swine,  though  some- 
times used  for  other  stock. 

THE  OAT  (Avena  saliva) 

Is  cultivated  throughout  a  wide  range  of  latitude  and  on  a 
greater  varii^ty  of  soil  than  any  other  grain.  It  will  grow 
on  rich  or  poor,  and  on  dry  or  moist  soils ;  on  the  heaviest 
clays  and  the  lightest  sands,  and  it  will  pay  as  well  on  rich 
lands  as  any  other  crop.  The  average  yield  on  good  soils  is 
from  30  to  40  bushels  per  acre,  and  on  the  richest  when  well 
cult.vated,  it  has  exceeded  120  bushels.  It  is  exposed  to 
fewer  injuries  than  other  grain,  being  seldom  affected  by 
rust,  smut  or  insects.  The  wire-worm  is  most  destructive 
to  it,  especially  when  sown  on  fresh  sod.  The  most  effectual 
mode  of  extirpating  these  and  other  troublesome  insects  is 
to  turn  the  sud  over  late  in  the  fall  just  before  our  severe 
winter  fiosts.  They  thus  become  chilled  and  incapable  of 
seeking  a  safe  reti  eat  from  their  fatal  effects.  If  not  plowed 
At  that  time,  it  should  b«  done  immediately  before  sowing  in 
spring,  when  by  turning  them  into  the  bottom  of  the  furrow, 
they  cannot  find  their  way  to  the  surface  in  sufficient  num- 
bers to  prey  upon  the  plant  before  it  gets  beyond  the  reach  of 
their  attacks. 

Varieties.  Of  these,  Loudon  mentions  nine  as  being 
well  defined  and  entirely  distinct,  besides  which  there  ar6 
many  local  or  recent  sub-varietes.     Ho  says  "  The  White  or 


GRAIN    AND    ITS   CULTIVATION.  l23 

common  oat  is  in  most  general  cultivation  in  England  and 
Scotland  and  is  known  by  its  white  husk  and  kernel.  The 
Black  oat  known  by  its  black  husk  and  cultivated  on  poor 
soils  in  the  north  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  Red  oat 
known  by  its  brownish  red  husk,  thinner  and  more  flexible 
stem  and  (irmly  attached  grains.  It  is  early,  suflers  little 
from  winds,  meals  well,  and  suits  windy  situations  and  a 
late  climate.  T/te  Poland  oat,  known  by  its  thick  white 
husk,  awniess  chatt",  solitary  grains,  short  white  kernel,  and 
shoit  stiff*  straw.  It  requires  a  dry  warm  soil  but  is  very 
})roiilic.  Tlie  black  Poland  oat  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  ; 
it  sometimes  weighs  50  lbs  to  the  bushel.  The  Friezland  or 
Dutch  oat  has  plump  thin  skinned  white  grains  mostly  double, 
and  the  large  ones  sometimes  awned.  It  has  longer  straw 
than  the  Poland,  but  in  other  respects  resembles  it.  The 
Potato  oat  has  large,  plump,  rather  thick  skinned,  white 
grains,  double  and  treble,  with  longer  straw  than  either  of 
the  two  last.  It  is  now  almost  the  only  kind  raised  in  the 
north  of  England  and  tiie  south  of  Scotland,  and  brings  a 
higher  price  in  the  London  market  than  any  other  variety. 
They  have  all  been  derived  from  the  produce  of  a  single 
stalk  which  was  first  discovered  growing  in  a  field  of  potatoes 
in  England,  in  1788.  The  Georgian  oat  is  a  large  grained, 
remarkably  profitable  variety  and  on  rich  soil,  in  good  tilth 
has  produced  more  than  any  other  variety.  Tlw  Siberian  or 
Tartarian  is  by  some  conceded  a  distinct  species.  The 
grains  are  black  or  brown,  thin  and  small  and  turned  mostly 
to  one  side  of  the  panicle  and  the  straw  is  coarse  and  reedy. 
It  is  little  cultivated  in  England,  but  is  found  very  suitable  for 
poor  soils  and  exposed  situations.  The  winter  oat  is  sown  at 
the  rate  of  2  bushels  per  acre  in  October,  the  plants  are  luxu- 
riant and  tiller  well,  and  afford  good  winter  and  spring  pas- 
lure  for  ewes  and  lambs,  and  when  these  are  shut  out,  it 
affords.an  ample  crop  of  grain  in  August." 

TJie  Hopetown  oat  originated  from  a  single  stalk  that  was 
first  discovered  in  1824,  by  Mr.  Sherriff,  in  a  field  of  potato 
oats.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  exceeding  height,  and  supe- 
rior produce  when  sown  on  rich  soils.  Tlie  Dyock  oat  is  a 
recent  sub-variety  of  the  Potato  oat,  and  it  is  claimed  for  it 
that  it  exceeds  the  last  in  the  number  of  bushels  yielded  per 
acre,  and  also  in  the  weight  of  the  grain  and  the  quantity 
of  meal.  The  Skinless  oats,  much  commended  in  Ireland, 
have  been  tried  in  this  country  without  much  succcsy.  They 
have  shown  a  tendency  to  degenerate,  the  necessary  oflect 


124  AMBRICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

of  previous  highly  artificial  cultivation.  There  are  many 
other  varieties  which  have  a  partial  or  local  popularity,  and 
from  the  readiness  with  which  new  kinds  are  produced,  care- 
ful attention  and  observation  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  will 
detect  from  time  to  time  such  as  may  have  a  decided  value 
over  others  for  particular  localities.  A  superior  kind  was 
discovered  in  a  field  of  common  oats  in  Oneida  County,  N.Y. 
some  years  since,  and  from  the  produce  of  one  stool  it  became 
widely  disseminated  and  has  uniformly  proved  both  hardy 
and  prolific.  The  variety  most  cultivated  in  the  United 
States,  is  the  common  white,  which  is  hardy  and  a  good 
bearer,  weighing  from  32  to  35  lbs  per  bushel.  The  black 
oat  is  preferred  in  western  N.  Y.  and  some  other  sections  of 
the  country.  Repeated  trials  have  been  made  with  the 
potato  oat,  a  heavy  grain  weighing  from  35  to  45  lbs  per 
bushel,  but  its  merits  have  not  proved  conspicuous  enough 
to  have  given  it  the  place  of  the  old  and  long  tried  varieties 
in  the  Unitexi  States. 

Cultivation. — In  this  country  oats  are  sown  at  the  rate 
of  2  to  4  bushels  per  acre  during  all  the  spring  months  rind 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  in  .Tune.  The  earliest  sown  are 
usually  the  heaviest  and  most  i)roductive.  They  may  occupy 
a  turf  or  follow  any  of  the  well-manured  hoed  crops  as  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  grain.  No  apparent  advantage  has 
been  derived  from  steeps  for  the  prevention  of  smut  as  in 
wheat,  the  impervious  husk  of  the  oat  apparently  arresting 
the  liquid  and  preventing  its  penetration  to  the  kernel. 
Sowing  salt  broadcast  over  the  land  at  the  rate  of  2  to  6 
bushels  per  acre  has  been  found  of  use  to  the  crop,  both  in 
furnishing  it  with  a  necessary  manure  and  by  killing  insects. 
The  seed  should  be  well  harrowed  in  and  rolled  and  no  after 
attention  is  required  except  to  destroy  the  prominent  weeds. 

Harvesting. — Oats  frequently  ripen  unevenly  and  if  there 
is  a  large  proportion  of  such  as  are  backwai-d,  the  proper 
time  tor  cutting  will  be  as  soon  as  the  grain  in  the  latest  may 
be  rubbed  out  of  the  straw  by  hand.  The  oat  is  sufficiently 
iiatured  for  harvesting  after  it  has  passed  the  milk  state,  and 
is  easily  compressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  The 
lower  part  of  the  stalk  will  then  have  assumed  a  yellow  color 
and  it  ceases  to  draw  nutriment  from  the  soil.  If  cut  at  this 
time  the  straw  is  better  for  fodder  and  for  other  uses ;  the 
grain  is  fuller  ;  the  husk  lighter  ;  and  the  loss  from  shellinfy 
which  is  frequently  a  great  item  when  left  too  late,  is  avoided. 
Oats  when  very  tall   are  most  profitably  cut  with  the  sickle, 


GRAIN    AND   ITS   CULTIVATION.  126 

and  when  lodged,  with  the  scythe  ;  but  when  erect  and  of 
medium  height,  with  the  cradle,  which  is  by  far  the  most 
speedy  and  economical,  and  this  leaves  them  in  a  suitable 
position  for  binding  into  sheaves.  They  may  be  stacked 
like  wheat. 

The  uses  of  oats  are  various  and  differ  materially  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  In  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  many  other 
countries,  oat  meal  is  much  used  as  human  food  and  for  this 
the  potato  oat,  or  some  one  of  the  heavy  kinds  is  preferred, 
as  they  afibrd  a  larger  proportion  of  meal  and  less  of  husk. 
Scotland,  "  the  land  o'  cakes  "  draws  no  inconsiderable  part 
of  the  support  of  her  entire  laboring  population  from  this 
meal,  which  is  formed  into  small  thin  cakes  and  eaten  with 
milk,  butter,  &c.,  or  it  is  mixed  with  water  or  milk  and  made 
into  a  kind  of  pudding  under  the  name  of  stirabout^  a  favorite 
dish,  which  is  said  to  be  palatable  to  those  accustomed  to  it. 

Davy  found  in  1000  parts  of  Scotch  oats,  743  of  soluble 
or  nutritive  matter,  containing  641  of  mucilage  or  starch, 
15  saccharine  matter,  and  87  gluten  or  albumen.  Those 
of  England,  gave  59  of  starch,  6  of  gluten,  2  of  saccharine 
matter,  and  33  of  husk  in  100  parts.  They  are  but  little 
used  for  human  food  in  this  country,  and  this  is  principally 
by  emigrants  who  bring  their  early  habits  with  them.  They 
are  prepared  by  kiln-drying  and  hulling,  then  grinding  and 
bolting  when  required  to  separate  the  flour.  The  meal  is 
scalded  before  using  and  mixed  with  about  half  its  weight 
of  wheat  flour  when  made  into  bread.  It  is  sold  by  the 
apothecaries  to  invalids  for  whom  it  is  valuable  on  account 
of  its  light,  digestible  character.  It  is  also  stirred  into 
water,  making  an  excellent  beverage  for  laborers  in  hot 
weather.  The  principal  use  of  oats  hoAvever,  in  the  United 
States,  is  as  food  for  working  animals,  for  which  it  is  unri- 
valled. Oats  are  sometimes  used  when  ground,  for  fattening 
cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  but  for  this  purpose  they  are  far 
surpassed  by  corn,  barley,  peas  or  boiled  potates.  They  are 
an  excellent  fodder  for  stock  sheep  and  for  them  are  most 
economically  fed  in  the  straw. 

INDIAN  CORN,  {Zea  maize). 
This  next  to  the  grasses,  is  by  far  the  most  important  crop 
of  the  United  States.  The  census  returns  for  1840,  gave 
387,000,000  bushels  ;  and  for  1843  the  estimate  of  the 
whole  product  of  Indian  corn  in  this  country  was  over  494,- 
000,000  bushels.     The  effect  of  this  immense  production  of 


126  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

a  staple  article  is  felt  in  every  department  of  our  agriculture; 
and  is  conclusively  shovi^n  by  the  low  prices  of  beef,  pork, 
mutton,  human  food,  whiskey  and  highwines,  to  all  of  which 
corn  is  made  largely  to  contribute.  Nearly  all  the  beef  and 
pork  of  the  vast  and  fertile  west,  and  much  in  the  north  and 
south  is  fed  upon  it.  Corn  seems  to  have  been  created  for 
this  western  hemisphere.  It  is  raised  in  boundless  luxuri- 
ance from  the  frozen  regions  of  Canada,  almost  to  the  Straits 
of  Magellan.  It  riots  in  the  fierce  blaze  of  our  cloudless 
western  sun,  and  it  is  here  that  it  attains  the  highest  perfec 
tion.  Its  most  prolific  area  on  this  continent  lies  between 
40°  North  and  38°  South  latitude,  deducting  a  limited  portion 
of  the  equatorial  regions.  Close  attention  in  its  cultivation 
is  necessary  when  receding  from  these  limits  towards  the  poles 
on  account  of  a  deficiency  of  sun  for  ripening  it.  In  such 
localities,  the  smaller  and  earlier  kinds  should  be  planted  on  a 
warm  soil  so  as  to  mature  before  the  first  frosts. 

Varieties. — There  is  no  one  of  the  cereal  grains  or  grass- 
es which  manifests  itself  under  such  multiplied  forms  as  maize. 
From  the  little  shrubby  stalk  that  grows  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior  to  the  palmetto-like  corn  of  the  Miami  Valley,  and 
from  the  tiny  ears  and  flattened,  closely  clinging  grains  of  the 
former,  the  l)rilliant  rounded  little  pearl,  or  the  thickly  wedged 
rice  corn,  to  the  magnificently  elongated,  swelling  ear  of  the 
Kentucky,  with  its  deeply  indented  gourd  seed,  it  is  develop- 
ed in  every  grade  of  sub-variety.  The  kernels  are  long,  round, 
or  flat,  and  are  white,  yellow,  blue,  red  or  striated  ;  but  each 
contain  the  same  principles  of  nutriment  combined  in  some- 
what different  proportions,  and  contributes  for  equal  weights, 
nearly  in  the  same  ratio  to  the  support  of  man  and  the  lower 
order  of  the  animal  creation.  The  analysis  of  corn  as  given 
by  Dr.  Dana,  is  in  100  parts,  of 

Flesh  forming  principles,  (gluten  and  albumen)  12-60 
Fat  forming,  (gum,  sugar,  starch,  oil,  woody  fibre,)  77*09 
Salts,  '  1-31 

Water,  9 


100 
Besides  the  kinds  in  general  cultivation  in  this  country, 
varieties  have  been  occasionally  introduced  from  abroad,  of  a 
character  so  different  as  almost  to  entitle  them  to  the  distinc- 
tion of  independent  species.  Such  are  the  Chinese  tree  cor^ 
bearing  its  slender  ears  at  the  extremity  of  several  expanded 
branches  ;  the  Egyptian  with  its  millet-like  head  ;  the  Ore- 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  127 

gon  with  its  separate  husk  or  envelope  for  every  distinct  ker- 
nel. But  if  we  narrowly  watch  tha  vagaries  of  nature,  we 
shall  notice  deviations  from  the  matter  of  fact  standards  of  our 
domesticated  varieties,  which  approximate  so  closely  to  the 
most  fanciful  of  the  exotics,  that  we  are  compelled  to  believe 
that  all  those  which  have  hitherto  come  within  our  notice, 
originated  from  one  common  head  ;  and  that  all  the  peculi- 
arities are  owing  to  the  difference  of  soil,  climate  and  cul- 
ture, and  the  carefully  cherished  eccentricities  of  nature,  aid- 
ed by  a  skilful  science  or  well  practised  art.  It  is  needless 
to  particularise  the  many  popular  kinds  of  corn  under  suc- 
cessful cultivation  in  this  country.  They  are  found  to  vary 
with  almost  every  degree  of  latitude  and  longitude  ;  and  there 
are  not  unfrequently  numerous  kinds  held  in  deservedly  high 
estimation  within  a  single  district.  From  these  there  will  be 
no  difficulty  in  selecting  such  as  will  best  repay  the  farmer's 
attention. 

The  soil  for  corn  must  be  dry,  rich  and  well  pulverized. 
Neither  strong  clay,  wet  or  poor  lands  will  yield  good  crops 
of  corn.  Land  can  scarcely  be  too  rich  for  it,  and  the  fresh- 
er and  less  fermented  the  manure  applied  to  it  is,  unless  on 
light  sandy  soils,  the  better  it  will  be  for  the  crop.  A  great 
error  is  committed  in  raising  corn  as  with  most  of  our  tillage 
crops,  from  not  having  the  soil  sufficiently  enriched ;  though 
this  error  is  diminished  in  the  case  of  such  as  will  not  bear 
an  excess  of  manure.  Corn  is  a  gross  feeder  and  necessarily 
ranges  over  a  great  space  in  search  of  food.  It  has  a  large 
amount  of  sfalk,  leaves  and  grain  to  provide  for  in  a  few 
weeks,  and  its  increase  will  be  commensurate  with  the  supply 
of  food. 

A  clover  ley  or  rich  grass  sod  is  an  excellent  preparation 
for  corn,  with  the  addition  of  manure  when  required.  But 
the  manure  should  always  be  scattered  broadcast,  plowed 
and  well  harrowed  in.  The  roots  will  be  certain  to  find  it 
and  in  consequence  of  its  general  diffijsion,  the  development 
of  the  ear  and  grain  will  correspond  with  that  of  the  stalk 
and  leaves.  When  manured  in  the  hill  on  poor  soil,  it  comes 
forward  early,  and  this  induces  an  extension  of  the  roots, 
which  finding  little  support,  the  crop  is  limited  to  the  stalks 
and  leaves  and  a  small  proportion  of  grain. 

The  selection  of  seed  should  be  made  with  the  utmost 
care,  not  only  from  the  best  varieties,  but  the  best  seed  of 
the  particular  kind  desired.  Some  of  the  choicest  have  been 
brought  to  their  present  perfection  by  selecting  only  the  ear. 


i3d  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

liest  and  largest  cars  from  the  most  prolific  stalks.  This 
ought  always  to  be  done  before  the  corn  is  gathered  in  the 
field  where  there  is  an  opportunity  for  comparison. 

Preparation  of  seed. — Repeated  experiments  have  dc- 
monstrated  the  great  utility  of  steeping  corn  for  24  to  48 
hours  before  planting,  in  a  solution  of  saUpetre.  This  ac- 
celerates the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  is  a  protection  against 
birds,  squirrels  and  mice,  and  for  a  while  it  will  keep  off 
worms.  An  effectual  remedy  against  these  depredations  is 
to  add  half  a  pint  of  boiling  tar  to  a  peck  of  seed,  stirring  the 
corn  briskly  for  several  minutes  as  the  tar  is  added,  till  every 
kernel  is  thinly  coated  w4th  it.  This  supercedes  the  necessi- 
ty of  the  worse  than  absurd  remedy  of  scare  screws.  The 
crows  and  other  birds  are  of  great  advantage  to  the  farmer 
on  all  his  fields  as  they  pick  up  numberless  insects,  grubs  and 
worms  which  infest  the  ground  and  destroy  or  seriously  in- 
jure the  vegetation. 

Planting. — Corn  may  be  planted  in  hills  from  3  1-2  to  4 
1-2  feet  assunder,  and  with  from  3  to  5  stalks  well  spread  in 
each  hill,  according  to  the  kind  of  seed,  quality  of  land,  &;c. 
Some  plant  in  drills,  but  this  is  objectionable  as  the  trouble  of 
cultivation  is  greater  without  increasing  the  yield.  Thick 
planting  gives  fewer  ears  upon  a  stalk  and  those  of  less  size. 
The  time  of  planting  at  the  North  is  usually  within  the  three 
first  weeks  of  May,  depending  much  on  the  season.  Late 
frosts  will  sometimes  cut  down  the  first  leaves  without  de- 
stroying the  germ,  biit  it  is  always  best  to  defer  planting  till 
all  apprehensions  of  it  are  removed.  In  the  more  Southern 
States  earlier  planting  is  desirable,  and  it  is  there  put  into  the 
ground  in  March  and  April.  To  give  regularity  to  the  rows 
and  facilitate  after  culture,  the  furrows  for  the  seed  should  be 
struck  out  each  way  with  the  utmost  exactness,  and  twice 
the  corn  planted  that  is  required  to  remain.  It  should  be 
covered  about  2  inches.  The  surplus  plants  can  be  pulled 
up  at  the  second  hoeing  when  all  fear  of  injury  is  past.  If 
the  land  is  light,  it  should  be  laid  flat  before  planting  and  af- 
ter this,  it  should  be  thoroughly  rolled. 

Cultivation — The  ground  may  be  stirred  when  the 
plants  first  show  themselves.  This  is  most  economically 
done  with  the  cultivator  or  light  plow,  and  if  the  operation 
be  frequent  and  thorough  there  will  be  little  use  for  the  hoe. 
Hilling  or  heaping  the  earth  around  the  plants  should  always  ^ 
be  avoided  except  with  very  heavy  soil  or  such  as  is  liable 
to  an  excess  of  moisture ;  in  all  other  cases  it  should  remain 


GRAIN   AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  129 

flat.  Stirring  the  ground  in  dry  weather  is  peculiarly  be- 
neficial to  corn  and  all  hoed  crops.  Some  onnit  it  then  fi'om 
fear  of  the  escape  of  moisture,  but  its  effect  is  precisely  the 
reverse,  as  nothing  so  certainly  produces  lightness,  porosity 
and  unevenness  in  the  soil,  which  under  the  head  of  soils  and 
draining,  we  have  shown  facilitated  the  admission  and  es- 
cape of  heat,  that  inevitably  secures  the  deposit  of  large 
quantities  of  moisture,  even  in  the  driest  and  most  sultry  wea- 
ther. Corn  and  other  crops,  which  were  withering  from  ex- 
cessive drought,  have  been  at  once  rescued  from  its  effects  by 
a  thorough  use  of  the  plow  and  cultivator.  Well  drained, 
dark  colored  and  rich  porous  soils  will  be  found  to  suffer  much 
less  in  drought  than  others  which  lack  these  characteristics. 
Harvesting. — If  there  be  no  danger  of  early  frost,  the 
corn  may  be  suffered  to  stand  till  fully  ripe  ;  though  if  the 
stalks  are  designed  for  fodder,  they  are  better  to  be  cut  when 
the  grain  is  well  glazed,  and  this  should  be  done  in  all  cases 
where  frost  is  expected.  Scarcely  any  injury  occurs  either 
to  the  leaf  or  grain  if  the  corn  be  stooked,  when  both  would 
be  seriously  damaged  from  the  same  exposure  if  standing. 
The  stalks  of  corn  should  never  be  cut  above  the  ear,  but 
always  near  the  ground,  and  for  this  obvious  reason.  The 
sap  which  nourishes  the  grain  is  drawn  from  the  earth,  and 
passing  through  the  stem  enters  the  leaf,  where  a  change  is 
effected  analogous  to  what  takes  place  in  the  blood  when 
brought  to  the  surface  of  the  lungs  in  the  animal  system  ; 
with  this  peculiar  difference  however,  that  while  the  blood 
gives  out  carbon  and  absorbs  oxygen,  plants  under  the  influ- 
ence of  light  and  heat,  give  out  oxygen  and  absorb  carbon. 
This  change  prepares  the  sap  for  condensation  and  conver- 
sion into  the  grain.  But  the  leaves  which  thus  digest  the 
food  for  the  grain  are  above  it,  for  it  is  while  passing  down- 
ward that  the  change  of  the  sap  into  grain  principally  takes 
place.  If  the  stalk  be  cut  above  the  ear  nourishment  is  at  an 
end.  It  may  then  become  firm  and  dry  but  it  is  not  increas- 
ed in  quantity,  while  if  cut  near  the  root,  it  not  only  appro- 
priates the  sap  already  in  the  plant,  but  it  also  absorbs  addi- 
tional matter  from  the  atmosphere  which  contributes  to  its 
weight  and  perfection.  It  must  be  perfectly  dried  in  the 
field,  and  after  this  husked  and  carried  into  an  airy  loft  or 
stored  in  latticed  or  open  barracks.  The  stalks  may  be  housed 
or  carefully  stacked  for  fodder.  Many  of  our  Western  farmers 
allow  both  grain  and  stalks  to  stand  in  the  field  till  wanted  for 
use,  when  they  are  fed  in  an  adjoining  enclosure.    This  is 


130  AMERICAN     AGRICULTUBE. 

more  economically  done  by  first  cutting  (or  what  is  better,  by 
both  cutting  and^n*ndm^,which  may  be  accomplished  by  a  re- 
cently invented  machine,)  and  then  mixed  either  with  roots  or 
meal.  When  fodder  is  high,  the  stalks  and  leaves  will  repay 
the  expense  of  cultivation. 

Corn  for  soiling. — Corn  has  recently  been  much  culti- 
vated for  fodder,  and  tor  this  purpose  the  soil  should  be  in  high 
condition  and  well  pulverized.  It  should  be  prepared  in  a 
pickle  of  salt  petre  like  that  intended  for  ripening,  and  may 
be  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in  at  the  rate  of  3  or  4  bush- 
els per  acre.  A  much  better  method  is  to  sow  thickly  in  drills, 
and  stir  the  ground  with  a  light  plow  or  cultivator.  The  sow- 
ing may  be  done  early  or  late,  though  the  first  is  most  success, 
ful.  It  should  be  cut  before  the  frosts  touch  it,  and  dried  pre- 
vious to  housing.  Several  tons  of  excellent  forage  have  been 
raised  from  a  single  acre.  In  the  report  of  Mr.  Leak  to  the 
Pedee  Agricultural  Society  of  South  Carolina,  it  is  asserted 
that  138,816  lbs.  of  green  corn  stalks  have  been  cut  from  one 
acre  in  a  season,  weighing  when  dry,  27,297  lbs. 

The  uses  of  corn  in  this  country  are  various.  It  is  large- 
ly f^ed  to  fattening  and  working  animals,  but  must  be  judicious- 
ly fed  to  the  latter  and  only  in  cool  weather.  It  is  exten- 
sively manufactured  into  high-wines  and  whiskey,  (a  sad  per- 
version of  one  of  the  best  gifts  of  nature.)  It  is  converted 
into  oil,  molasses  and  sugar  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and  is 
variously  and  largely  applied  to  domestic  uses.  While  green 
it  is  boiled  and  roasted  in  the  ear  ;  or  it  is  cut  from  the  cob 
and  cooked  with  the  garden  or  kidney  bean,  which  forms  the 
Indian  succotash.  When  ripe,  it  is  hulled  in  a  weak  ley, 
then  boiled  and  known  as  Jiulled  com ;  or  parched  over  a  hot 
fire,  affording  a  delicious  lunch  and  a  convenient  provision  for 
hunters  as  j^opp^d  com.  Hommony  or  samp,  is  a  favorite 
dish,  and  consists  of  corn  coarsely  ground  and  boiled  in  wa- 
ter ;  and  hasty  pudding  differs  from  this  in  being  made  of  fine 
meal.  The  meal  may  be  compounded  with  milk  and  eggs  into 
jonny  caA«5,  puddings,  griddles  and  other  delicacies  univer- 
sj^lly  esteemed  for  the  table. 

RICE  {Oryza  saliva.) 

(/ontributes  directly  to  the  support  of  a  larger  number  of 
the  human  family  than  any  other  plant.  In  China,  and 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  southern  part  of  Asia,  througlj 
the  innumerable  and  densely  populated  islands  of  the  Pacific 
and  Indian  Oceans,  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe,  and  a  large 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  13l 

extent  of  Africa,  and  through  no  inconsiderabU>  portion  of 
the  North  and  South  American  continent,  it  is  extensively 
grown,  and  forma  the  staple  food  of  the  inhabitants.  Rice 
requires  a  moist  soil,  and  is  much  more  productive  when  sub- 
ject to  inundation.  A  hot  sun  is  also  necessary  to  mature  it, 
and  as  a  result  of  these  two  essential  conditions,  its  culture  is 
limited  to  regions  much  more  circumscribed  than  are  allotted 
to  wheat,  maize,  or  some  of  the  usual Ij'^  cultivated  plants. 
We  subjoin  from  the  American  Agriculturist,  an  excellent  ar- 
ticle on  the  cultivation  of  rice,  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Cart- 
wright. 

"  There  are  many  varieties  of  rice ;  but  I  am  induced 
to  believe  that  they  are  all  essentially  aquatic.  All  the  varie- 
ties, yet  discovered,  flourish  best  under  the  inundation  system 
of  culture  ;  yield  more  to  the  acre,  give  less  trouble,  and  re- 
quire less  labor.  Nevertheless,  each  variety  grows  pretty 
well  on  light,  moist  uplands  without  irrigation,  when  cultiva- 
ted with  the  hoe  or  plow.  The  product,  however,  is  so 
much  less  than  by  the  irrigation  system,  and  the  labor  of  til- 
lage so  much  more,  that  the  upland  producer  never  can  com- 
pete successfully  with  the  lowlander.  The  former  may  cur- 
tail his  expenses  by  growing  rice  for  domestic  uses,  but  he 
can  not,  very  profitably,  produce  it  for  sale.  Besides  the 
ten-fold  labor,  which  rice  on  upland  requires,  in  comparison 
to  that  cultivated  by  the  irrigation  system,  it  can  not  be  sown 
thick  enough  to  make  a  larger  yield  per  acre.  Space  must 
be  left  for  the  plow  or  hoe  to  till  the  rice,  which  is  not  neces- 
sary in  those  localities  where  it  can  be  overflowed  at  will, 
and  the  water  drawn  off'as  occasion  may  require. 

"The  method  pursued  on  the  rice  lands  of  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi, is  to  sow  the  rice  broadcast,  about  as  thick  as  you 
sow  wheat  at  the  north,  and  harrow  it  in  with  a  light  har- 
row having  many  teeth  ;  the  ground  being  first  well  plowed 
and  prepared  by  ditches  and  embankments  for  inundation  at 
will.  It  is  generally  sown  in  March.  Immediately  after 
sowing,  the  water  is  let  on,  so  as  barely  to  overflow  the 
ground.  The  water  is  withdrawn  on  the  second,  third,  or 
fourth  day,  or  as  soon  as  the  grain  begins  to  swell.  The 
rice  very  soon  after  comes  up  and  grows  finely.  When  it 
has  attained  about  tliree  inches  in  height,  the  water  is  again 
lot  on  ;  the  top  leaves  being  lefl  a  little  above  the  water.  Com- 
plete immersion  would  kill  the  plant.  A  fortnight  previous  to 
harvest,  the  water  is  drawn  oflT  to  give  the  stalks  strength, 
and  to  dry  the  ground  for  the  convenience  of  the  reapers. 


1^ 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


**  A  different  method  is  practised  in  the  northern  part  of 
Italy.  The  seed  is  sown  in  April ;  previously  to  which  it  is 
soaked  a  day  or  two  in  water.  After  sowing,  about  two 
inches  of  water  is  let  in  upon  the  ground.  The  rice  comes 
up  through  the  water,  which  is  then  drawn  off  to  give  the 
plant  strength,  and  after  some  days,  is  again  let  on.  The 
rice  is  more  apt  to  mildew  under  this  practice,  than  our  meth- 
od of  letting  the  water  on  about  the  time  the  Italians  draw  it 
off. 

"The  same  measure  of  ground  yields  three  times  as  much 
rice  as  as  wheat.  The  only  labor,  after  sowing,  is  to  see 
that  the  rice  is  properly  irrigated,  except  in  some  localities 
where  aquatic  plants  prove  troublesome,  the  water  effectual- 
ly destroying  all  others. 

"The  rice-grounds  of  the  lower  Mississippi  produce  about 
seventy-five  dollars  worth  of  rice  per  acre.  The  variety 
called  the  Creole  white  rice  is  considered  to  be  the  best.  In 
the  eastern  part  of  the  State  of  Mississippi,  called  the  ^  jpiney 
icood^,*  rice  is  very  generally  cultivated  on  the  uplands.  Al- 
though it  can  not  be  made  a  profitable  article  of  export,  yet  it 
affords  the  people  of  that  interior  region  an  abundant  supply 
of  a  healthy  and  nutritious  food  for  themselves,  and  a  good 
provender  for  their  cattle,  and  makes  them  independent  of 
the  foreign  market.  Unlike  other  kinds  of  grain,  it  can  be 
kept  for  many  years  without  spoiling,  in  a  warm  climate,  by 
simply  winnowing  it  semi-annually,  which  prevents  the  wee- 
vil and  a  small  black  insect  that  sometimes  attacks  it.  It  is 
cultivated  entirely  with  the  plow  and  harrow,  and  grows  well 
on  the  pine  barrens.  A  buU-tongued  plow,  a  kind  of  shovel 
plow  drawn  by  one  horse,  is  driven  through  the  unbroken 
pine-forest ;  not  a  tree  being  cut  or  belted,  and  no  grubbing 
being  necessary,  as  there  is  little  or  no  undergrowth.  The 
plow  makes  a  shallow  furrow  about  an  inch  or  two  deep,  the 
furrows  about  three  feet  apart.  The  rice  is  dropped  into  them 
and  covered  with  a  harrow.  The  middles,  or  spaces  be- 
tween the  furrows,  are  not  broken  up  until  the  rice  attains 
several  inches  in  height.  One  or  two  plowings  suffice  in  the 
piney  woods  for  its  cultivation — weeds  and  grass,  owing  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  not  being  troublesome.  A  similar 
method  of  cu'tivation  obtains  on  the  prairie  land  of  the  north- 
western states. 

"  Rice,  like  hemp,  does  not  impoverish  the  soil.  On  the 
contrary,  it  is  a  good  preparatory  crop  for  some  others,  as  In- 
dian corn.    The  pine  barrens  of  Mississippi  would  produce  rice 


GRAIN   AND    ITS   CTLTIVATION.  133 

ad  infinitum,  if  it  were  not  that  the  land,  after  a  few  years, 
owing  to  the  sandy  nature  of  the  soil,  becomes  too  dry  for  it. 
It  has  been  ascertained  by  Arnal,  that  12  pounds  of  wheat 
flour  and  2  pounds  of  rice  will  make  24  pounds  of  an  excel 
lent  bread,  very  white  and  good ;  whereas,  without  the  addi- 
tion  of  rice,  14  pounds  of  Hour  will  only  make  18  pounds  of 
bread.  Like  other  kinds  of  grain,  rice  adapts  itself  to  the 
soil  and  climate,  and  paiticular  mode  of  cultivation  ;  but  if 
the  seed  be  not  changed,  or  selected  from  the  best  specimens 
of  the  plant,  it  will  uUimately  degenerate.  Thus  in  Pied- 
mont, after  a  long  series  of  years,  the  rice  became  so  much 
affected  with  a  kind  of  blight  called  the  hrusone^  as  to  compel 
the  Piedmontese  to  import  fresh  seed  in  1829,  from  South 
Carolina.  The  American  rice  introduced  into  Piedmont  es- 
caped the  brtisojie,  but  it  \^  as  several  years  ])efore  it  adapted 
itself  to  the  soil  and  climate.  Some  years  ago,  a  French  tra- 
veller by  the  name  of  Poivre,  finding  rice  growing  in  great 
perfection  on  the  mountains  and  highlands  of  Asia,  particular- 
ly Cochin  China,  named  it  '  rlz  sec'  or  dry  rice,  and  sent  the 
seed  to  Europe,  where  many  experiments  were  made  with  it. 
It  yielded  no  better  than  any  other  kind  of  rice,  and  was 
found  like  all  others  to  succeed  best  when  inundated.  The 
reason  why  it  yielded  so  much  more  in  Asia  than  in  Europe, 
can  be  readily  accounted  for,  by  the  natural  inundations  it 
receives  from  the  excessive  rains  during  the  monsoons. 

*'  No  variety  has  been  discovered  which  yields  as  much 
out  of  the  water  as  it  does  in  it.  There  are  many  localities 
in  the  United  States,  where  the  culture  of  rice  by  the  irriga- 
ting system,  would  rather  serve  to  make  the  surrounding 
neighborhoods  healthy  instead  of  sickly.  It  is  generally  ad- 
mitted, that  a  given  surface  of  ground  completely  inundated, 
is  much  less  unhealthy  than  the  same  surface  partially  in- 
undated, or  in  transitu  Ijetween  the  wet  and  the  dry  state. 
Hence  mill-ponds  which  partially  dry  up  in  the  summer,  are 
fruitful  sources  of  disease.  Some  of  the  best  rice  is  said  to 
grow  on  the  bottom  of  mill-ponds.  Nothijig  more  is  neces- 
sary, than  to  make  the  bottom  of  the  mill-pond  perfectly  level, 
and  then  to  overflow  the  whole  surface  just  deep  enough  to 
keep  the  top  leaves  above  water.  As  if  to  show,  that  un- 
healthiness  is  not  necessarily  connected  with  the  culture  of 
this  valuable  grain,  nature  has  imposed  a  law  upon  it,  order- 
ing that  it  should  flourish  better  when  overflowed  with  pure 
running  water  than  with  the  stagnant  waters  of  impure  lakes 
and  marshes. 


134  AMERICAN    AGRiCUtTURfi, 

"  There  are  two  kinds  of  rice,  which  are  said  to  succeed 
best  on  uplands  ;  the  long  and  the  round.  The  fornner  has  a 
red  chafF,  and  is  very  difficult  to  beat.  The  latter  shakes 
out,  if  not  cut  as  soon  as  ripe.  They  nevertheless  succeed 
best  under  the  inundation  system  of  culture.  In  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  rice  is  cultivated  as  far  north  as  the  46th  degree 
of  latitude.  The  climate  of  the  United  States  is  better  suited 
to  it  than  that  of  Europe,  because  our  summers  are  hotter. 
In  the  northern  part  of  China  the  variety  called  the  imperial 
rice,  or  riz  sec  de  la  Chine  (the  oriza  saliva  mutica),  is  more 
precocious  than  any  other,  is  said  to  yield  a  heavy  harvest,  and 
to  constitute  the  principal  food  for  the  people  of  that  populous 
region.  But  it  has  succeeded  no  better  in  Europe  than  any 
other  kind  of  rice. 

"The  best  rice  lands  of  South  Carolina  are  valued  at  five 
hundred  dollars  per  acre,  while  the  best  cotton-lands  sell  for  a 
tenth  part  of  that  sum,  proving  that  rice  is  more  profitable  than 
cotton.  The  profits  of  a  crop  should  not  so  much  be  estima- 
ted by  the  yield  per  acre,  as  the  number  of  acres  a  laborer 
can  till.  After  the  land  is  properly  prepared  for  inundation, 
by  levelling,  ditching,  and  embankments,  a  single  individual 
can  grow  almost  an  indefinite  quantity  of  rice.  Rice  is  no 
doubt  ultimately  destined  to  supersede  cotton  in  a  large  por- 
tion of  Mississippi  and  Louisiana." 

MIL  LET  (Panicum  miUiaceum) 

In  it  growth  and  the  manner  of  bearing  its  seeds,  the  mil- 
let strongly  resembles  a  miniature  broom  corn.  It  grows  to 
the  height  of  2i  to  4  feet  with  a  profusion  of  stalks  and 
leaves  which  furnish  excellent  forage  for  cattle.  From  80 
to  100  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  have  been  raised,  and  with 
straw  equivalent  to  1  ^  or  2  tons  of  hay,  but  an  average  crop 
mjiy  be  estimated  at  about  one  third  this  quantity.  Owing  to 
the  great  waste  during  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  from  the  shel- 
ling of  the  earliest  of  it  before  the  last  is  matured,  and  the 
frequent  depredations  of  birds  which  are  very  fond  of  it,  mil- 
let, is  more  profitably  cut  when  the  first  seeds  have  began  to 
ripen,  and  harvested  for  fodder.  It  is  cured  like  hay,  and  on 
good  land  yields  from  2  J  to  4  tons  per  acre.  All  cattle  relish 
it,  and  experience  has  shown  it  to  be  fully  equal  to  good  hay. 

Cultivation. — Millet  requires  a  dry,  rich  and  well  pul- 
verized soil.     It  will  grow  on  thin  soil,  but  best  repays  on  the^ 
most  fertile.     It  should  be  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills  from  the 
1st   May  to  1st  July.     If  for  hay  and  sown  broadcast,  40 


GRAIN    AND    Its    CULTIVATION,  155 

quarts  per  acre  will  be  required,  if  sown  in  drills  for  the  grain, 
8  quarts  of  seed  will  suffice.  It  will  ripen  in  60  to  75  days 
with  favorable  weather.  When  designed  for  fodder,  the  near- 
er it  can  approach  to  ripening,  without  waste  in  harvesting, 
the  more  valuable  will  be  the  crop. 

BUCK  WHEAT  OR  BEECH  WHEAT  {Polygonum  fagopyrum) 

Is  a  grain  much  cultivated  in  this  country.  It  grows 
freely  on  light  soils,  but  yields  a  remunerating  crop  only  on 
those  which  are  fertile.  Fresh  manure  is  injurious  to  this 
grain.  Sandy  loams  are  its  favorite  soils,  especially  such 
as  have  lain  long  in  pasture,  and  these  should  be  well 
plowed  and  harrowed.  It  may  be  sown  from  the  1st  of  May 
to  the  10th  of  August,  but  in  the  northern  states  this  ought 
to  be  done  as  early  as  June  or  July  or  it  may  be  injured  by 
early  frosts  which  are  fatal  to  it.  It  is  sown  broadcast  at 
the  rate  of  three  to  six  pecks  per  acre  and  harvested  when 
the  earliest  seed  is  fully  ripe.  The  plant  often  continues 
flowering  after  this,  and  when  the  early  seed  is  blighted  as 
is  often  the  case,  the  plant  may  be  left  till  these  last  have 
matured.  As  it  is  liable  to  heat,  it  should  be  placed  in  small 
stacks  of  two  or  three  tons  each,  but  it  is  better  to  thresh 
out  the  grain  at  once.  If  not  perfectly  dry,  the  straw  may 
be  stacked  with  layers  of  other  straw  and  when  well  cured, 
it  will  be  a  valuable  fodder  for  cattle.  Sheep  will  feed  and 
thrive  as  well  on  this  straw  as  on  good  hay. 

Uses. — This  grain  is  ground  and  bolted  and  the  flour  is 
much  used  for  human  consumption.  Before  grinding,  the 
hull  or  outer  covering  is  removed,  and  when  thus  prepared, 
the  flour  is  as  white  and  delicate  in  appearance  as  the  best 
rye,  it  is  equally  light  and  digestible,  and  is  scarcely  inferior 
to  wheat  in  its  nutritive  properties.  The  grain  is  used  for 
fattening  swine  but  is  most  profitable  when  mixed  with  corn. 
Poultry  thrive  upon  it.  Buckwheat  was  formerly  employed 
as  a  fertilizer,  but  for  this  object  it  is  inferior  to  the  clovers 
in  all  cases  where  the  soil  is  capable  of  sustaining  them.  Its 
rapid  growth  will  insure  the  maturing  and  turning  under  of 
two  crops  in  one  season.  There  are  other  varieties  than 
the  one  specified,  but  none  of  equal  value  for  general  culti- 
vation in  this  country. 


l86  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUBD, 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 

THE  PEA  {Fisum  sativum.) 

The  pea,  the  bean,  the  tare,  vetch,  lupine,  the  clovers,  &c. 
are  all  embraced  in  the  botanical  order  LeguminoscB.  The 
pea  is  valuable  for  cultivation  not  only  for  the  table,  but  for 
many  of  the  domestic  animals.  It  is  much  fed  to  swine, 
sheep  and  poultry.  For  the  former,  it  should  be  soaked, 
boiled  or  ground.  If  land  is  adapted  to  it,  few  crops  can  be 
more  profitably  raised  for  their  use.  They  ripen  early,  and 
when  beginning  to  harden  they  may  be  fed  with  the  vines, 
and  the  animals  will  masticate  the  whole  and  soon  fatten. 

The  So[l. — The  heaviest  clays  will  bear  good  peas,  but 
a  calcareous  or  wheat  soil  is  better.  Strong  lands  produce 
the  best  crops,  but  these  should  be  made  so  by  manures  pre- 
viously applied,  as  the  addition  of  such  as  are  fresh  increa- 
ses the  growth  of  haulm  or  straw  and  sometimes  diminishes 
both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  pea.  When  sown  on  a 
thin  sward,  the  manure  should  be  spread  before  plowing.  A 
dressing  of  well  rotted  manure  increases  the  crop  and  is  a 
good  preparation  when  intended  to  be  followed  by  wheat. 

Varieties. — Of  these  there  are  many.  The  earlier 
kinds  are  generally  indifferent  bearers  and  their  cultivation 
is  limited  almost  exclusively  to  the  garden.  Of  those  for 
field  culture,  the  marrow-fat  are  preferred  for  good  lands, 
and  are  a  rich  pea.  The  small  yellow  are  perhaps  the  best 
for  poorer  soils.  There  is  a  very  prolific  bush-pea  grown  in 
Georgia,  bearing  pods  six  or  seven  inches  long,  which  hang 
in  clusters  on  a  short  upright  stem.  The  pods  are  filled 
with  a  white  pea,  which  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  table, 
either  green  or  dry.  In  that  latitude  they  bear  two  or  three 
crops  in  one  season. 

Cultivation. — Peas  should  have  a  clean  fallow,  or  fresh, 
rich  sod  well  harrowed.     They  are  not  affected  by  frosts 


LEOUMII^OUS    PLANTS.  13V 

and  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry.  This  will 
enable  them  to  ripen  in  season  to  plow  for  wheat.  They 
are  very  liable  to  attack  from  the  pea-bug,  which  deposits  its 
egg  in  the  pea  while  in  its  green  state  where  it  hatches,  and 
the  worm  by  feeding  on  the  pea,  diminishes  its  weight  nearly 
one-half.  Here  it  remains  through  the  winter  and  comes 
out  as  a  bug  the  following  season.  To  avoid  this  pest,  some 
sow  only  such  seed  as  has  been  kept  over  two  years,  while 
others  sow  as  late  as  the  15th  or  25th  of  May  which  delays 
the  pea  till  after  the  period  of  its  attacks,  but  this  latter  prac- 
tice seldom  gives  a  large  crop.  It  may  be  killed  by  pouring 
boiling  water  upon  the  seed,  stirring  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
then  draining  it  off.  Peas  are  sometimes  sown  in  drills,  but 
most  usually  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  bushels 
per  acre.  It  is  better  to  plow  them  in  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches  and  afterwards  roll  the  ground  smooth  to  facilitate 
gathering.  When  sown  in  drills  they  may  be  worked  by 
the  cultivator  soon  after  coming  up.  The  growth  is  pro- 
moted by  steeping  the  seed  for  twenty  or  thirty  hours  in 
urine  and  then  rolling  it  in  ashes  or  plaster. 

Harvesting  is  accomplished  by  cutting  with  the  sickle 
or  scythe,  or  what  is  more  expeditious,  (when  fully  ripe  so 
that  the  roots  pull  out  easily)  with  the  horse  rake.  When 
thus  gathered  into  heaps  and  well  dried,  they  may  be 
threshed  out  and  the  haulm  carefully  stacked  and  saved  for 
sheep  fodder.  If  this  is  secured  in  good  condition,  cattle 
and  sheep  will  do  well  upon  it.  Peas  are  frequently  sown 
with  oats  and  when  thus  grown,  they  be  fed  to  sheep  or 
horses  unground,  or  made  into  meal  for  swine. 

The  Cow  Pea. — This  is  grown  in  the  Southern  states, 
and  is  valuable  either  as  a  fertilizer  or  as  food  for  domestic 
animals.  Its  long  vines  and  succulent  leaves  which  draw 
much  of  their  substance  from  the  air,  and  its  rapid  and  luxu- 
riant growth  particularly  adapt  it  to  the  first  object,  while 
ils  numerous  and  well  filled  pods  and  its  great  redundancy 
of  stem  and  leaf  aflbrd  large  stores  of  forage.  This  is  im- 
proved for  cattle,  when  harvested  before  the  seed  is  fully 
ripe.  It  is  sown  broadcast,  in  drills,  or  hoed  in  among  corn, 
when  the  latter  is  well  advanced.  If  in  drills,  it  may  be 
cultivated  in  its  early  stages  by  the  plow,  shovel-harrow  or 
cultivator.  It  may  be  cut  with  the  scythe,  or  drawn  toge- 
ther with  a  heavy  iron-toothed  harrow  or  horse  rake  as  with 


138  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

the  common  pea.     It  requires  a  dry  medium  soil  and  is  well 
suited  to  clays. 

THE    BEAN    {Phaseolus  vulgaris.) 

The  bean  is  often  a  field  crop  in  this  country  and  espe- 
cially in  the  northern  and  middle  states.  It  is  principally 
used  either  green  or  dry  for  the  table.  It  is  a  palatable  and 
highly  condensed  food,  containing  much  in  a  small  com- 
pass. In  proportion  to  its  weight,  it  gives  more  nutriment 
than  any  of  the  ordinary  vegetables  ;  according  to  Einhof, 
yielding  84  per  cent,  of  nutritive  matter  while  wheat  gives 
only  74.  It  has  in  common  with  the  pea,  vetch,  &c.,  though 
in  a  greater  proportion,  a  peculiar  principle  termed  legumin 
which  is  analogous  to  casein.,  the  animal  principle  in  milk, 
which  is  convertible  into  cheese,  and  in  its  nutritive  proper- 
ties it  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  fibrin  of  lean  meat,  the 
albumen  of  e^^s  and  other  animal  matters.  There  is  no 
vegetable  we  produce  so  fitted  to  supply  the  place  of  animal 
food  as  the  bean. 

Soil. — The  bean  is  partial  to  a  quick  dry  soil,  too  great 
strength  or  fresh  manuring  giving  a  large  quantity  of  vine 
without  a  corresponding  quantity  of  fruit. 

Cultivation. — The  land  should  be  finely  pulverized  and 
if  at  all  inclined  to  wet  it  should  be  ridged.  Beans  are  ten- 
der plants  and  will  not  bear  the  slightest  frost,  and  as  they 
grow  rapidly,  they  will  be  sure  to  ripen  if  planted  when 
this  is  no  longer  to  be  apprehended.  The  seed  is  exposed 
to  rot  if  put  into  the  ground  in  a  cold  wet  time,  and  the 
land  should  therefore  be  previously  well  warmed  by  the  sun. 
The  bush  beans  are  the  only  kind  used  for  field  planting, 
and  of  these  there  are  several  sub-varieties.  The  long  gar- 
den beans,  white,  red  or  mottled,  are  great  bearers,  of  fine 
quality  and  early  maturing.  Early  ripening  is  important,, 
when  other  crops  are  to  succeed  the  same  season.  They 
are  usually  planted  in  hills  about  two  feet  apart,  and  also  in 
drills  covered  two  inches  with  fine  earth.  They  have  been 
sown  broadcast  on  clean  dry  soils  and  produced  largely. 
When  planted  in  drills,  from  five  to  eight  plants  should  be 
left  in  each  according  to  their  proximity,  or  if  in  drills  they 
need  about  1 J  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

Harvesting. — When  the  beans  are  fully  formed  and 
there  is  any  danger  of  frost,  they  should  be  at  once  secureoj' 


LEGUMINOITK     PLANTS.  139 

but  this  scarcely  affects  them  when  tliey  are  gathered  and 
thrown  into  heaps.  If  the  ground  is  not  wanted  for  other 
uses,  they  may  stand  till  the  latest  pods  assume  a  yellow 
color.  They  are  pulled  with  ease  when  the  plant  is  mature 
as  the  fibres  of  the  root  are  by  that  time  dead.  This  is 
more  quickly  accomplished  with  an  iron  hook-rake,  or  if 
the  stalks  are  partially  green  they  can  be  mown.  The 
vines  if  not  dry  should  reinain  for  a  while  in  small  heaps 
and  afterwards  collected  in  larger  piles  around  stakes  set  at 
convenient  distances,  with  the  roots  in  the  centre  and  secured 
at  the  top  by  a  wisp  of  straw  ;  and  wlien  w^ell  dried,  they 
should  be  threshed,  cleaned  and  spread  till  quite  free  from 
dampness.  The  straw  or  haulm  is  an  excellent  fodder  for 
sheep  and  should  be  stacked  for  their  use.  Beans  are  one 
of  the  best  kinds  of  winter  food  for  sheep  when  fed  in  small 
quantities.  Sixty  bushels  have  been  raised  on  an  acre  worth 
from  $1  to  #2  per  bushel.  Sheep  are  the  only  animal 
which  eats  them  raw,  but  swine,  cattle  and  poultry  will 
thrive  on  them  boiled. 

THE  ENGLISH  FIELD  BEAN  (Viciafaha) 

Is  cultivated  under  many  varieties  in  Europe  and  particu- 
larly in  Great  Britain,  as  a  field  crop  for  the  use  of  horses 
and  other  animals.  Among  these  are  t?ie  Windsor,  the  tick, 
the  long  pods  and  others.  Arthur  Young  prefers  "  the  com- 
mon little  horse-bean  as  being  more  generally  marketable.*' 
We  have  tried  several  of  these  varieties  and  although 
entirely  successful,  have  found  them  less  adapted  to  our 
climate  and  agriculture  than  the  ordinary  crops.  They  pre- 
fer strong  clay  or  clay  loam  soils. 

THE  TARE,  VETCH  OR  FITCH  {Vicia  satira) 

Is  an  important  field  crop  in  Europe  for  its  stem  and 
leaves  as  animal  food.  It  is  hardy  and  productive  and  con- 
sidered valuable  for  green  fodder  or  soiling.  There  are 
two  kinds,  the  winter  and  spring.  It  is  partial  to  a  clay, 
but  grows  indifferently  on  any  rich  soil  which  is  not  too  dry. 
It  is  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills,  but  generally  the  former, 
on  well  pulverized  lands  and  covered  with  the  harrow, 
demanding  no  after  attention  but  the  extermination  of  weeds. 
They  are  most  useful  for  soiling,  but  may  be  fed  on  the 
ground  or  cut  for  hay.  Tares  have  hitherto  been  little 
grown  in  this  country,  but  in  certain  soils  and  situations 


146  AMERICAN    AORICULTITRE. 

they  may  be  introduced  as  a  substitute  for  clover,  where 
from  any  cause  the  latter  does  not  grow  successfully.  All 
domestic  stock  are  fond  of  them. 

THE  PINDA  OR  GROUND  PKA,  (Arachis  hypogaa). 
This  is  a  legumen  and  is  cultivated  with  profit  in  the  south- 
ern states  on  light  sandy  lands,  where  it  yields  from  30  to 
even  80  bushels  per  acre,  besides  furnishing  much  haulm  for 
forage.  It  is  sown  in  drills  4  or  5  feet  apart,  and  worked 
with  a  light  plow  or  cultivator  immediately  after  the  plants 
show  themselves  above  ground.  They  soon  overspread  the 
whole  surface.  When  properly  matured,  the  roots  are  loo- 
sened by  a  fork  and  pulled  up  by  hand,  and  after  curing  are 
put  under  cov(u'  for  winter's  use.  They  contain  a  large  quan- 
tity of  oil,  but  in  other  respects,  closely  resemble  the  com- 
njon  pea  and  bean  in  their  nutritive  qualities.  They  are  in 
high  repute  for  their  fattening  qualities. 


ROOTS.  141 


CHAPTER   IX. 

ROOTS. 

THE  ?OTATO,  {Solanum  tuberosum). 

The  potato  is  a  native  of  the  American  Continent.  It  is 
found  in  a  wild  state  both  in  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chili,  and 
was  probably  discovered  in  the  same  condition  by  the  early 
settlers  of  North  America.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been 
taken  into  Spain  and  Italy  early  in  the  16th  century  by  Span- 
ish adventurers,  as  it  was  cultivated  in  those  countries  in 
1550.  In  1588  it  was  introduced  into  Vienna  from  Italy, 
and  also  into  England  probably  as  early  as  1586,  by  the 
colonists  of  Virginia  who  were  sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh. It  was  regarded  in  Europe  at  first  as  a  delicacy;  but 
not  until  within  a  comparatively  recent  period  has  it  found 
its  way  in  both  continents,  as  an  article  of  agricultural  atten- 
tion, and  an  almost  indispensable  food  for  man  and  beast. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  neglect  of  the  potato  in  this  coun- 
try  as  a  field  crop,  the  writer  may  mention  that  he  once 
knew  an  extensive  eastern  farmer,  who,  late  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, had  raised  in  one  year  7  bushels  of  potatoes.  After 
disposing  of  all  that  was  wanted  for  his  own  and  his  neigh- 
bors consumption  he  had  still  a  surplus  left.  A  farmer  on 
the  same  premises  at  the  present  day  would  deem  700  bush- 
els a  short  crop. 

Vjk.RiETiES. — These  are  almost  illimitable.  They  differ 
in  form  from  round  to  oblong,  are  flat  and  curved  or  kidney- 
shaped  ;  they  vary  in  size  from  the  delicate  lady-finger  to 
the  gigantic  blue-nose  ;  their  exterior  is  rough  or  polished 
and  of  almost  every  hue,  white,  yellow,  red,  and  almost  black; 
and  the  surface  is  smooth  and  even  with  the  eye  scarcely 
discernible,  or  deeply  indented  w^ith  innumerable  sunken 
eyes  like  the  rohan  and  merino.  The  interior  is  equally 
diversified  in  color  and  is  mealy,  glutinous  or  watery,  and 
sometimes  pleasant  and  sometimes  disagreeable  to  the  taste. 
They  likewise  difter  in  ripening  earlier  or  later,  and  in  being 


142  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

adapted  in  some  of  their  varieties  to  almost  every  peculiarity 
of  soil.  New  kinds  are  produced  at  pleasure  by  planting  the 
seed  found  in  the  balls.  The  tubers  obtained  in  this  way  will 
be  small  the  first  season,  but  with  careful  culture  will  be 
large  enough  the  second  year  to  determine  their  quality, 
when  the  best  may  be  selected  for  propagation.  The  earli- 
est are  easily  designated  by  the  premature  decay  of  the  tops. 
The  varieties  may  also  be  increased  from  the  seed  by  hybri- 
dizing, or  impregnating  the  pistils  of  one  flower  by  the 
pollen  taken  from  the  flower  of  another,  and  in  this  way 
some  of  the  best  and  most  valuable  kinds  have  been  procured. 
Such  as  have  no  flowers  are  more  productive  of  tubers,  as 
there  is  no  expenditure  of  vitality  in  forming  the  seed.  They 
may  be  compelled  to  flower  by  removing  the  small  tubers 
from  the  stalks  as  they  form. 

The  best  soil  for  potatoes  is  a  rich  loam,  neither  too  wet 
or  too  dry;  but  such  as  are  cool  and  moist,  as  those  of  Maine, 
Nova  Scotia  and  Ireland,  especially  if  in^rich  fresh  sod,  give 
the  best  flavored  pc^tatoes  and  are  the  least  liable  to  disease. 
A  calcareous  soil  yields  a  good  potato,  and  generally  a  sure 
crop,  and  when  there  is  little  lime  in  the  soil  it  should  be  ad- 
ded. Salt,  ashes  and  gypsum  are  excellent  manures  and  in 
certain  instances  have  astonishingly  increased  the  product. 
Crushed  bones  also  greatly  improve  a  potato  soil.  Fresh 
manures  will  often  unpleasantly  affect  the  taste  of  the  potato, 
and  when  necessary  to  apply  it,  it  should  be  scattered  broad- 
cast and  plowed  in. 

The  seed  chosen  should  be  such  as  experience  has  de- 
cided is  best  adapted  to  the  soil  and  the  use  for  which  they  are 
to  be  appropriated.  Some  are  careful  to  select  the  most 
mealy  for  the  table,  and  plant  those  which  give  the  greatest 
yield  for  their  cattle.  This  is  sometimes  mistaken  policy,  as 
what  are  best  for  man  are  generally  best  for  cattle  ;  and  al- 
though the  farmer  may  get  a  much  greater  weight  and  bulk  on 
a  given  quantity  of  land  of  one  kind,  it  may  still  be  inferior 
in  fat  and  flesh-forming  materials  to  those  afforded  by  a  smal- 
kr  quantity.  Thus  of  three  varieties  grown  in  Scotland  in 
1842,  the  cups  gRVG  13  3-4  tons  per  acre,  containing  2  9-10 
tons  of  starch;  the  red  dons  yielded  14  1-4  tons  and  15.10 
of  starch  ;  the  white  dons  18  1.2  tons  and  2  4-10  of  starch, 
and  the  kidney  has  even  given  as  much  as  3:2  per  cent,  of 
starch. — (Johnston.)  There  is  also  a  difference  in  the  rela- 
tive proportions  of  gluten.  Of  this  last,  the  potato  contains 
in  its  new  and  ripe  statu  about  2  1-4  per  cent.,  which  dimin- 


ROOTS.  143 

ishes  by  long  keeping.  It  is  important  in  this  as  in  an  infi- 
nite  number  of  other  practical  matters  in  the  economy  of 
agriculture,  to  have  agricultural  laboratories  of  unquestiona- 
ble  reliability,  where  the  errors  of  superficial  observation  may 
be  detected,  and  where  the  real  superiority  of  one  product 
over  another,  and  their  variations  induced  by  soils,  manures 
and  treatment  may  be  established  beyond  the  possibility  of  a 
doubt. 

Planting. — To  produce  abundantly,  potatoes  require  a  fer- 
tile soil,  and  if  not  already  sufilciently  rich,  manure  should 
be  spread  on  the  surface  before  plowing.  If  a  tough  sod,  it 
should  be  plowed  the  preceding  fall,  or  if  friable,  it  may  be 
done  just  before  planting  ;  but  in  all  cases  the  land  should  be 
put  in  such  condition  as  to  be  perfectly  loose  and  mellow. 
Hills  are  the  most  convenient  for  tillage,  as  they  admit  of 
more  thorough  stirring  of  the  ground  with  the  cultivator  or 
plow.  Medium  size,  uncut  potatoes  have  been  ascertained 
from  numerous  experiments  to  be  the  best  for  planting,  but 
when  seed  is  scarce,  it  is  sometimes  economical  to  divide 
them.  Two  potatoes  should  be  placed  in  each  hill,  or  if  in 
drills,  they  should  be  planted  singly  10  inches  apart.  The 
distance  both  of  hills  and  drills  must  depend  on  the  strength 
of  the  soil  and  the  size  of  the  tops,  some  varieties  growing 
much  larger  than  others.  Cover  with  light  mold  to  the  depth 
of  4  or  6  inches,  and  if  the  soil  be  light  leave  the  ground 
perfectly  level ;  if  cold,  heavy  or  moist,  let  the  hill  be  raised 
when  finished.  Subsoil  plowing  is  a  great  help  to  potatoes. 
The  sets  cut  from  the  seed^end  give  a  much  earlier  crop  than 
those  from  the  root. 

Cultivation. — When  the  plants  first  appear  above  the 
ground,  run  the  plow  through  them  and  throw  the  earth  over 
them  2  or  3  inches,  and  no  injury  results  if  the  tops  are  par- 
tially or  even  entirely  covered.  The  hoe  is  scarcely  required 
except  to  destroy  such  weeds  as  may  have  escaped  the 
plow.  The  ground  should  be  severaltimes  stirred  before  the 
tops  interfere  with  the  operation,  but  n  ever  after  they  come 
into  blossom.  Enormous  crops  have  b  oen  procured  by  top 
dressing  with  compost  earth,  well  rottei.  chip  manure,  6lc.. 
soon  after  the  plants  make  their  appearand  ;  this  is  carried  to 
the  field  and  spread  from  a  light  one  hors;^  cart,  the  wheels 
passing  between  the  rows;  but  such  results  are  due  to  the 
nicest  cultivation  and  they  would  be  equally  attained  by  plac- 
ing tne  land  in  the  best  condition  before  planting.     There  is.. 


144  A^fERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

some  gain  to  the  crop,  when  the  buds  are  pkicked  before  they 
come  to  blossom. 

Harvesting  and  Storing  should  not  be  commenced  un- 
til the  tops  are  mostly  dead,  as  the  tuber  has  not  arrived  at 
lull  maturity  before  this  time.  They  may  then  be  thrown 
out  of  the  hills  by  a  harrow,  plow,  or  some  hand  implement. 
They  ought  not  to  be  exposed  to  the  sun  for  any  length  of 
time,  but  may  dry  on  the  surface  in  a  cloudy  day,  or  be  gath- 
ered into  small  heaps  with  some  of  the  tops  »pread  over  them, 
until  freed  from  the  surface  moisture,  when  they  may  be  stored. 
Those  selected  for  seed,  should  be  placed  in  small  piles  in  the 
field)  or  in  thin  layers  in  a  cool,  dry  place  in  the  cellar 
where  the  air  is  excluded  and  no  heating  or  injury  can  oc- 
cur. Such  as  are  intended  for  consumption  may  be  put  in 
dry  bins  or  barrels  in  the  store  room,  covered  with  straw  and 
dry  sand  or  loose  earth  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  air,  or 
buried  in  the  field.  Where  convenient  of  access,  a  hole  may 
be  excavated  in  the  north  side  of  a  hill,  or  under  a  shade  ifi  a 
porous  soil.  When  first  stored,  the  potatoes  should  be  cover- 
ed for  a  few  days  with  a  slight  thatch  of  straw  so  arranged  as 
to  shed  the  rain.  A  partial  sweating  or  heating  soon  takes 
place,  which  drives  off  some  of  the  moisture,  after  which 
they  may  be  lightly  covered  with  earth  and  in  this  way  they 
may  remain  till  the  commencement  of  severe  frosts,  when 
they  should  be  effectually  protected  from  frost  and  rain  till 
wanted  in  the  spring.  A  northern  exposure  or  shade  will 
shield  them  from  any  injurious  effects  of  the  sun  on  the  ap- 
proach of  warm  weather.  If  stored  on  level  ground,  a  hole 
should  be  excavated  for  their  reception,  from  1  to  2  {aot  in 
depth  and  4  to  5  in  width  and  of  any  length  required.  The 
potatoes  are  then  ridged  up  like  the  roof  of  a  house,  thatched 
and  covered  as  previously  described.  A  ditch  lower  than 
the  base  must  encircle  the  heap  when  the  soil  consists  of 
clay,  from  which  an  outlet  conducts  away  all  the  water,*  as 
any  left  upon  them  will  inevitaVjly  produce  decay. 

Diseases. — The  potato  has  long  been  subject  to  the  curl. 
From  numerous  experiments  made  in  Scotland  to  avoid  this 
disease,  it  has  been  found  that  seed  from  potatoes  which 
were  gathered  before  fully  ripe  gave  a  much  better  and 
surer  crop.  It  would  be  well  to  try  the  experiment  in  this 
country  where  there  is  any  deficiency  of  product  from  want 
of  full  and  healthy  developement.  Potatoes  are  also  aflecte^ 
by  the  scab  and  grub,  against  whose  attacks  there  is  no  rem- 
edy unless  in  a  change  of  seed  and  location.     The  rot  has  for 


ROOTS.  145 

several  years  produced  serious  and  increasing  injury  to  the 
potato  crop,  in  1845,  almost  threatening  starvation  in  Ireland 
and  causing  great  loss  and  suffering  in  other  countries.  Its 
effects  have  also  been  extensively  felt  in  the  United  States. 
Numerous  and  scientific  examinations  have  been  made  on 
the  subject.  The  proximate  cause  is  supposed  to  be  a  fun- 
gus, but  what  are  the  reasons  for  its  late  rapid  extension  and 
the  remedy  for  its  ravages  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
ascertained. 

Preventives  of  rot. — Under  the  follovt^ing  circumstances  rot 
has  not  appeared  when  adjoining  fields  have  been  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  it.  1.  By  using  unripe  seed,  or  seed  which  has 
been  exposed  to  the  sun,  light  and  air,  and  well  dried  for  10 
days  after  digging,  and  afterwards  stored  in  a  dry  place  in 
small  parcels  where  air  is  excluded  till  the  moment  of  plant- 
ing. 2.  By  the  use  of  lime,  some  of  which  is  placed  in  the 
hill  and  the  potateos  dusted  with  it,  and  also  from  the  use  of 
charcoal  and  salt,  gypsum  or  other  salts.  3.  By  the  absence 
of  fresh  barn-yard  manure,  or  if  used,  by  adding  largely  of 
lime  or  saline  manures.  4.  The  use  of  fresh  sod  which  has 
long  been  unfilled.  This  has  been  found  more  efficacious 
than  any  other  preventive,  although  it  has  occasionally  failed. 
The  sod  may  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  or  it  may  be  left  till  late 
in  May  or  early  in  June,  when  it  has  a  good  coating  of  grass, 
and  then  turned  under  flat,  and  furrowed  lightly  to  receive 
the  seed  without  disturbing  the  sod.  Or  they  may  be  planted 
by  using  a  sharpened  stake  3  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  pin 
or  shoulder  10  mches  from  the  bottom,  on  which  the  foot  may 
be  placed  for  sinking  the  holes.  These  should  be  made  be- 
tween the  furrow  slices  at  the  proper  distance  for  drills,  and 
a  single  potato  placed  in  each  which  may  be  covered  with 
the  heel.  5.  Sound  early  varieties,  early  planted,  have  also 
escaped.  We  have  thus  secured  a  good  yield,  almost  wholly 
free  from  disease ;  and  even  those  affected  did  not  appear  to 
communicate  disease  to  others.  It  has  also  been  found  that 
some  very  late  planted  have  escaped  rot ;  and  if  it  be  an  epi- 
demic, it  may  be  that  both  by  early  and  late  planting,  the 
peculiar  stage  of  vegetation  when  the  fungus  appears,  is  in  a 
great  measure  avoided.  But  the  investigations  on  this  impor- 
tant subject  are  still  in  their  infancy,  and  nothing  has  thus 
far  been  ascertained,  which  can  be  justly  considered  as  hav- 
ing determined  principles  of  universal  application  ;  yet  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the  zeal,  intelligence  and  general  inte- 
rest which  are  now  combined  for  this  object  will  ere  long  de- 
F 


146  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

tect  what  has  hitherto  evaded  the  severest  scrutiny  of  scienti- 
fic research. 

Arresting  the  disease  has  in  some  instances  been  successful, 
by  mowing  off  the  tops  when  they  are  found  defective.  This 
practice  would  be  injurious  to  healthy  plants,  but  may  be 
adopted,  like  that  of  cutting  grain  when  struck  by  rust,  if  it 
will  secure  even  a  part  of  the  crop.  When  disease  appears 
in  such  as  arc  dug,  they  should  be  carefully  sorted  and  the 
sound  ones  well  dried,  then  placed  separately  in  layers  and 
covered  with  ashes,  burnt  clay,  or  fine  dry  mold,  which  act 
as  absorbents  of  moisture  and  prevent  contagion  from  such 
as  may  be  imperceptibly  affected.  They  may  also  be  cut  in 
slices  and  dried,  or  crushed  and  the  farinaceous  part  ex- 
tracted. By  this  means  the  potato  will  be  made  to  yield 
nearly  all  its  nutriment.  It  is  found  that  this  disease  affects 
the  tissues  (the  nitrogenized  or  albumenous  part)  of  the  potato 
only;  and  for  this  reason,  potatoes  which  have  not  been 
too  long  or  too  deeply  injured,  will  yield  nearly  their  full 
amount  of  fat  for  animals  or  starch  for  the  manufacturer. 

Uses. — Besides  being  an  indispensable  vegetable,  potatoes 
are  boiled  and  mixed  with  flour  for  bread,  to  which  they  im- 
part a  desirable  moisture  and  an  agreeable  flavor.  They 
are  sliced,  dried  and  ground  and  much  used  in  Europe  as 
flour,  and  by  the  confectioners.  They  are  also  manufactured 
into  tapioca  and  when  nicely  prepared,  the  product  is  not 
distinguishable  from  that  of  the  manioc.  In  all  of  these  and 
some  other  forms,  they  enter  into  consumption  as  human 
food.  They  are  also  used  in  large  quantities  by  the  manu- 
facturers of  starch ;  to  some  extent  for  distilling ;  and  in  a 
less  degree  for  making  sugar.  The  refuse  of  the  pulp  after 
extracting  the  starch,  as  well  as  the  liquor  drained  from  it, 
is  used  for  cleansing  woollens  and  silks,  which  it  effects  with- 
out injury  to  the  color.  But  by  far  the  greatest  use  of  pota- 
tatoes  in  this  country  is  for  stock  feeding.  They  are  eaten 
with  avidity  by  all  the  brute  creation  either  cooked  or  raw. 
For  cattle  and  sheep,  they  are  equally  nutritious  in  either 
condition.  For  horses  they  are  improved  by  steaming  or 
baking.  Swine  and  most  poultry  will  subsist  on  them  raw, 
but  will  fatten  on  them  only  when  cooked.  Their  good  ef- 
fects are  most  enhanced  by  mixing  with  meal  when  they  are 
hot,  which  partially  cooks  it.  . 


I 


ROOTS.  147 


THE  SWEET  POTATO  (Convolvulus  batatus) 

Is  a  root  of  very  general  growth  in  the  southern,  and  is 
much  cultivated  in  the  middle  sections  of  the  United  States, 
and  f:)r  tlie  table  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  esculent.  It 
is  also  greedily  eaten  and  with  great  advantage  by  every  spe- 
cies of  stock. 

Soil. — A  dry  and  sandy  or  light  loamy  soil  is  best  for 
them,  and  this  should  be  well  manured  with  compost  scatter- 
ed broadcast  before  working  the  ground,  and  thoroughly  pul- 
verized by  repeated  plowing  and  harrowing.  It  should  then 
be  thrown  into  beds  4  feet  wide,  (which  may  be  easily  done 
with  the  plow,)  and  in  the  centre  of  this  strike  a  light  furrow 
to  receive  the  seed  if  the  soil  is  dry,  or  plant  it  on  the  surface 
if  moist. 

Cultivation. — When  the  season  is  sufficiently  long  to 
mature  them,  the  potato  may  be  most  conveniently  planted 
by  cutting  tlic  seed  into  slips  and  laying  them  6  or  8  iaches 
apart  in  the  place  where  they  are  to  mature.  Large  pota- 
toes divided  into  pieces  of  a  proper  size  are  better  for  seed 
than  small  ones  uncut.  These  should  be  covered  about  2 
iuches  with  light  mold.  When  they  b;'gin  to  sprout,  the 
plow  may  be  run  close  to  the  rows  on  either  side  to  remove 
the  earth  and  allow  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun  and  air  to  the 
roots,  and  as  the  plant  advances  in  its  growth,  the  earth  may 
be  gradually  restored  to  them  by  the  plow  and  hoe.  Where 
the  vines  are  so  large  as  to  be  injured  by  the  plow,  the  hoe 
alone  should  be  used.  The  hill  or  drills  may  then  be  made 
broadly  around  the  plants,  hollowiiig  towards  them,  to  afibrd 
a  full  bed  of  rich,  mellow  earth,  and  to  retain  the  rain  which 
falls.  They  are  tit  for  gathering  when  the  vines  are  dead. 
Where  the  season  is  short  or  early  potatoes  are  wanted,  plant 
on  a  hot  bed  made  of  warm  manure  with  a  covering  of  4 
inches  of  fine  mold.  After  splitting  the  potatoes,  place  them 
on  thii;  and  cover  with  3  inches  of  light  earth.  As  the  sprouts 
appear,  draw  and  transplant  them  after  a  rain  in  the  same 
manner  as  before  suggested.  When  early  vegetated,  a 
bushel  of  seed  will  supply  plants  for  an  acre. 

The  'preservation  of  the  sweet  potatoe  through  tlic  winter  is 
difficult.  We  have  often  heard  ])lanters  complain  that  they 
could  not  preserve  them,  though  their  laborers  are  generally 
succcessful.  The  latter  frequently  store  them  under  the  floors 
of  their  cabins,  by  excavating  a  hole  in  the  dry  earth  not  far 
distant  from  their  fires  and  cover  with  light  mold.     Great 


148  AMERICAN     AGRICULTUKE. 

care  to  seclude  them  from  air  and  light,  and  absolute  dryness 
seem  to  be  essential  to  their  preservation.  They  are  fre- 
quently kept  by  piling  in  heaps  on  dry  earth,  which  are  still 
more  secure  with  a  layer  beneath  of  corn  stalks  or  dry  pine 
boughs  6  or  8  inches  deep.  On  this  pack  the  roots  in  piles 
6  feet  in  diameter.  Cover  with  corn  stalks  and  dry  earth, 
and  protect  this  with  a  roof  of  boards  and  a  ditcli  deep  enough 
to  carry  off  all  water.  There  must  be  a  hole  at  the  top  slight- 
ly stopped  with  straw  to  permit  the  escape  of  heated  air  and 
to  preserve  uniformity  of  temperature.  There  are  numerous 
varieties  of  the  sweet  potato,  red,  yellow,  &c.  They  yield 
from  200  to  300  bushels  per  acre  and  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances sometimes  double  this  quantity. 

THE  TURNEP  {Brassica  rapa.) 

The  common  flat  English  turnep  was  introduced  into  this 
country  with  our  English  ancestry  and  has  ever  since  been 
an  object  of  cultivation.  When  boiled  it  is  an  agreeable  ve- 
getable for  the  table.  Its  principal  value  however  is  food 
for  cattle  and  sheep  by  which  it  is  eaten  uncooked.  Its 
comparative  nutritive  properties  are  small,  but  the  great  bulk 
which  can  be  raised  on  a  given  piece  of  ground,  and  the  fa- 
cility and  economy  of  cultivation,  have  always  rendered  it  a 
favorite  with  such  farmers,  as  have  soil  and  stock  adapted  to 
its  profitable  production  and  use. 

A  GOOD  SOIL  for  it  is  a  fertile  sand  or  well  drained  loam. 
Any  soil  adapted  to  Indian  corn  will  produce  good  turneps. 
But  it  is  only  on  new  land  or  freshly  turned  sod,  that  they  are 
most  successful.  An  untilled  virgin  earth  with  the  rich  dres- 
sing of  ashes  left  after  the  recent  burning  of  accumulated  ve- 
getable matter,  and  free  from  weeds  and  insects,  is  the  surest 
and  most  productive  for  a  turnep  crop.  Such  land  needs 
no  manure.  For  a  sward  ground,  or  clover  ley,  there  should 
be  a  heavy  dressing  of  fresh,  unfermented  manure  before 
plowing. 

Cultivation. — Turneps  are  sown  from  the  15th  of  June 
to  the  1st  of  August.  The  first  give  a  greater  yield  ;  the  last 
generally  a  sounder  root  and  capable  of  longer  prcservationil 
The  ground  should  be  plowed  and  harrowed  immediately  be- 
fore sowing  as  the  moisture  insures  rapid  germination  of  the 
seed,  which  is  of  great  importance  to  get  it  beyond  the  reach 
of  insects  as  soon  as  possible.  This  may  be  sown  broadcast 
at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  pounds  per  acre  and  lightly  harrowed 
and  rolled ;  or  it  is  better  to  be  sown  in  drills,  when  a  less 


ROOTS.  l49 

quantity  of  seed  will  suffice.  A  turnep  drill  will  speedily  ac- 
coniplish  the  furrowing,  sowing,  covering  and  rolling  at  a 
single  operation.  The  crop  will  be  materially  assisted  by  a 
top  dressing  of  lime,  ashes  and  plaster,  at  the  rate  of  15  or 
20  bushels  of  the  iirst,  half  the  quantity  of  the  second,  and  3 
or  4  bushels  of  the  last,  per  acre.  When  the  plants  show 
themselves  and  the  leaves  are  partially  expanded,  the  culti. 
vator  or  hoe  may  be  freely  used,  stirring  the  ground  well  and 
exterminating  all  weeds. 

RuTA-BAGA  oit  SwEDEs  TuRNEP. — The  iutroduction  of 
this  is  comparatively  recent,  and  it  proves  to  be  more  worthy 
of  attention  than  the  English  or  white  turnep.  It  will  bear  a 
heavier  soil,  yield  as  well,  give  a  richer  root,  and  it  has  the 
great  advantage  of  keeping  longer  in  good  condition,  thus 
prolonging  the  winter  food  of  cattle  when  they  most  need  it. 

Cultivation^ — It  is  usually  planted  after  wheat  or  corn, 
but  if  a  fresh  virgin  soil  or  old  pasture  sod  is  chosen,  it  will 
materially  lessen  its  liability  to  insects  and  other  enemies. — 
It  is  generally  sown  in  drills  about  2  feet  apart,  and  on  heavy 
lands  these  should  be  slightly  ridged.  The  plants  must  be 
successively  thinned  to  prevent  interfering  with  such  as  are 
intended  to  mature,  but  enough  should  remain  to  provide  for 
casualties.  Where  there  is  a  deficiency  they  may  be  sup- 
plied by  transplanting  during  showery  weather.  They 
should  be  left  6  or  8  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  The  Swede 
turnep  is  a  gross  feeder  and  requires  either  a  rich  soil  or  heavy 
manuring,  though  the  use  of  fresh  manures  has  been  supposed 
to  facilitate  the  multiplication  of  enemies.  Bones  ground 
and  drilled  in  with  the  seed,  or  a  dressing  of  lime,  ashes, 
gypsum  and  salt  are  the  best  applications  that  can  be  made. 
The  Swede  should  be  sown  from  about  the  20th  May  to  the 
15th  June,  earlier  than  the  English  turnep,  as  it  takes  longer 
to  mature,  and  2  or  3  weeks  more  of  growth  frequently  adds 
largely  to  the  product.  An  early  sowing  also  gives  time  to 
raise  another  crop  in  case  of  failure  of  the  first. 

Enemies. — The  turnep  is  exposed  to  numerous  depredators, 
of  which  the  turnep  flea-beetle  is  the  most  inveterate.  It 
attacks  the  plant  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  expand  and  often 
destroys  2  or  3  successive  sowings.  The  black  catterpillar, 
slugs,  wire-worms,  and  numerous  other  insects,  grubs  and 
aphides  prey  upon  and  greatly  diminish  the  crop. 

Remedies  have  been  tried  to  an  almost  indefinite  extent, 
but  none  hitherto  with  more  than  very  partial  success.  Lib- 
eral sowing  and  rapid  growth  best  insures  the  plant  from  in- 


150  AMEHICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

jury,  and  to  effect  this  the  seed  should  be  plentifully  sown, 
and  if  possible,  when  the  ground  is  moist,  and  always  in  a 
rich  soil.  The  seed  should  be  steeped  in  some  preparation 
which  experience  has  shown  will  the  most  quickly  develope 
the  germ.  Solutions  of  the  nitrates  or  sulphates,  urine,  soot- 
water,  liquid  guano,  currier's  oil,  dec.  impregnate  the  first 
leaves  with  substances  distasteful  to  their  early  enemies,  and 
thus  a  short  respite  from  their  attacks  will  be  secured.  Gyp- 
sum, ashes,  bone  dust  and  poudrette,  drilled  in  with  the  seed 
are  excellent  forcers  for  the  young  roots.  Charcoal  dust  ap- 
plied in  the  same  way  has  been  tbund  to  increase  the  early 
growth  from  four  to  ten-fold.  When  the  fly,  and  bug,  &;c. 
is  discovered,  the  application  of  lime,  ashes  or  soot,  or  all 
combined  should  be  made  upon  the  leaves  while  the  dew  or 
a  slight  moisture  is  on  them.  This  leads  the  young  plant 
along,  and  kills  such  enemies  as  it  reaches.  Urine,  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  (oil  of  vitrol,)  and  other  liquid  manures  will 
have  the  same  effect.  Ducks,  chickens,  and  young  turkies 
and  birds  will  devour  innumerable  quantities,  and  their  pres- 
ence should  always  be  encouraged  not  only  on  this,  but  on 
most  of  the  fields.  Dragging  the  surface  with  fine  light 
brush  will  lessen  the  slugs  and  insects.  The  ground  should 
be  plowed  just  before  winter  sets  in,  which  exposes  the 
worms  and  the  larvae  of  insects  to  the  frost,  when  they  are 
unable  to  work  themselves  into  a  place  of  safety.  The  seed 
should  not  be  planted  on  ground  before  occupied  or  near  any 
of  the  order  of  plants  antcifercB,  cabbage,  radish,  mustard, 
charlock  and  water-cress,  as  they  all  afford  food  for  the  ene- 
mies of  turnips  and  thereby  tend  to  their  multiplication. 

Harvesting  may  be  deferred  till  the  approach  of  cold 
weather,  and  in  those  sections  of  the  country  not  affected  by 
severe  frosts,  when  on  dry  soils,  they  may  be  allowed  to  win- 
ter on  the  field.  Otherwise  they  should  be  secured  during 
the  good  autumnal  weather.  This  is  accomplished  most  ex- 
peditiously with  a  root  hook,  which  is  made  with  two  iron 
prongs  attached  to  a  hoe  handle.  The  use  of  a  bill  hook  or 
sharp  knife  will  enable  the  operator  to  lop  off  the  leaves  with 
a  single  blow,  when  they  are  thrown  into  convenient  piles 
and  afterwards  collected  for  storage. 

The  Storing  may  be  in  cellars  or  in  heaps,  similaf  to 
potatoes,  but  in  a  cooler  temperature  as  slight  heat  injures 
them,  M'hile  frost  does  not.  If  stored  in  heaps,  one  or  more 
holes  should  be  left  at  the  top,  which  may  be  partially  stop- 


ROOTS.  151 

ped  by  a  wisp  of  hay  or  straw   to  allow   the  escape  of  the 
gases  which  are  generated. 

The  feeding  of  ruta-bagas  to  cattle  and  sheep  is  always 
in  their  uncooked  state.  They  are  better  steamed  or  boiled 
for  swine,  but  their  food  should  be  sought  from  the  more  fat- 
tening products  of  the  farm.  In  moderate  quantity  they  may 
be  given  to  horses,  but  they  cannot  be  relied  upon  for  them, 
as  they  are  too  bulky  for  working  animals.  Their  place  is 
much  better  supplied  for  horses  by  the  carrot  or  potato. 
Their  true  value  is  as  food  for  store  and  fattening  cattle, 
milch  cows  and  sheep,  as  they  furnish  a  salutary  change  from 
dry  hay,  being  nearly  equivalent  as  a  f(  d  ]er  to  green  sum- 
mer food.  They  should  be  washed  before  feeding  if  too 
much  dirt  adheres  to  them,  but  if  grown  on  a  light  soil,  the 
tap  roots  lopped  off  and  otherwise  properly  secured,  they  will 
not  require  it.  They  may  be  sliced  with  a  heavy  knife,  or 
more  summarily  cut  up  while  lying  on  the  barn  floor,  with  a 
sharp  spade,  or  root  slicer,  which  is  made  with  a  socket  han- 
dle and  tAVo  blades  crossing  each  other  in  the  centre  at  right 
angles,  or  by  some  of  the  numerous  improved  cutting  ma- 
chines. With  an  abundance  of  turneps  and  a  small  supply 
of  straw,  hay  may  be  entirely  dispensed  with  for  cattle  and 
sheep.  Many  of  the  best  English  breeds  are  kept  exclusive- 
ly on  turneps  with  a  little  straw  till  ready  for  the  shambles. 

The  varieties  of  turneps  are  numerous.  After  selecting 
such  as  will  give  the  largest  crop  of  the  most  nutritious  roots, 
the  next  object  in  the  choice  of  particular  varieties  should 
be  to  adapt  them  to  the  most  economical  use.  Some  will 
keep  much  longer  than  others,  and  if  wanted  to  feed  late  in 
the  season  it  may  be  necessary  to  take  a  variety  intrinsically 
less  valuable  than  another  which  must  be  earlier  consumed. 
The  English  turnep  should  be  first  fed  as  it  soonest  wilts  and 
becomes  pithy,  then  follow  with  the  others  according  to  their 
order  of  maturity  and  decay.  The  leaves  yield  good  forage, 
and  if  unmixed  with  earth  may  be  fed  dry  or  green  to  cattle. 

The  value  of  turneps  to  this  country  is  trifling  in  compari- 
son with  that  of  many  parts  of  Europe.  In  Great  Britain 
alone,  this  value  probably  exceeds  one  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  annually.  But  its  culture  here  is  much  less  desirable, 
as  our  drier  climate  and  early  and  severe  winters  are  not  as 
well  adapted  to  its  production  and  economical  preservation 
and  feeding  as  those  of  England,  and  its  numerous  enemies 
render  it  an  uncertain  crop.  These  objections  are  increased 
by  the  important  fact,  that  it  enters  into  competition  with  our 


162  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Indian  corn,wliich  under  ordinary  circumstances, always  gives 
a  certain  and  highly  remunerating  return.  It  may  sometimes 
however  take  the  place  of  corn  with  advantage,  and  the  tur- 
nip or  some  of  the  other  roots  should  always  occupy  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  change  of  winter  food  for  cattle  and 
sheep. 

THE    CARROT    {Daucus  carota) 

Is  one  of  our  most  valuable  roots.  It  is  a  hardy,  easy 
cultivated  plant,  and  grows  in  almost  every  soil,  and  is  next 
to  the  potato  in  its  nutritive  properties. 

The  soil  which  best  suits  it  is  a  fertile  sand  or  light  loam, 
but  it  will  grow  on  such  as  are  more  tenacious  if  well  drain- 
ed, and  deeply  worked.  The  success  of  this  and  the  parsnep 
depends  much  on  the  depth  to  which  their  roots  can  reach. 
Deep  spading  or  subsoil  plowing  is  therefore  indispensable  to 
secure  lar.-re  crops,  and  nearly  all  kinds  of  manure  are  equal- 
ly  suited  for  their  food  if  well  rotted.  The  ground  should  be 
thoroughl)-  pulverized. 

The  varieties  chiefly  used  for  field  culture  are  the  long 
red,  the  cange,  and  white  Belgian.  The  last  under  favor- 
able circumstances,  attains  huge  dimensions,  and  from  its 
roots  grow  high  out  of  the  ground,  it  is  supposed  to  draw 
more  of  its  nourishment  from  the  air,  and  to  exhaust  the  ground 
less,  while  it  is  of  course  more  easily  harvested.  But  it  is 
considerably  below  the  others  in  comparative  value. 

Planting. — The  carrot  should  be  sown  in  drills,  16  to  20 
inches  apart,  when  the  ground  has  become  warm  and  dry. 
The  seed  is  best  prepared  by  mixing  with  fine  mold  or  pou- 
drette  and  stirring  them  well  together  to  break  off  the  fine 
beards  ;  then  sprinkle  with  water  and  allow  it  to  remain  in 
a  warm  place  and  occasionally  turn  it  to  produce  equal 
development  in  the  seed.  It  may  remain  10  or  15  days  be 
fore  sowing  till  nearly  ready  to  sprout.  It  then  readily  ger- 
minates and  docs  not  allow  the  weeds  to  get  the  start.  The 
frequent  use  of  the  cultivator  and  entire  cleanliness  from  weeds 
is  all  that  is  necessary  to  insure  a  crop,  unless  it  be  con- 
venient to  give  it  a  top  dressing  of  liquid  manure,  which  the 
Flemings  always  do,  and  which  no  crop  better  repays.  Two 
pounds  of  good  seed  will  sow  an  acre.  Any  deficiency  of 
plants  may  be  supplied  by  transplanting  in  moist  weather. 
Six  inches  is  near  enough  for  the  smaller  kind  to  stand,  and  8 
for  the  larger.     They  are  subject  to  few  diseases  or  enemies, 


BOOTS.  153 

excepting  such  as  can  be  avoided  by  judicious  selection  of 
soil  and  careful  tillage. 

The  harvesting  may  be  facilitated  by  running  a  plow 
on  one  side  of  the  rows,  when  the  roots  are  easily  removed 
by  hand.  The  tops  are  then  cut  and  the  surface  moisture 
from  the  roots  dried,  when  they  may  be  stored  like  turneps 
and  potatoes.  They  ought  to  be  kept  at  as  low  a  temperature 
as  possible  above  the  freezing  point.  On  the  approach  of 
warm  weather  they  will  sprout  early  if  left  in  heaps,  and  if 
important  to  preserve  them  longer  the  crown  should  be  cut  off 
and  the  roots  spread  in  a  cool  dry  place. 

Uses.-— Carrots  are  chiefly  grown  for  domestic  stock. 
Horses  thrive  remarkably  on  them,  and  some  judicious 
farmers  feed  them  as  a  substitute  for  oats.  But  their  intrin- 
sic value  in  weight,  is  less  in  the  proportion  of  about  5  to  1. 
They  are  good  for  working  cattle  and  unsurpassed  for  milch 
cows,  producing  a  great  flow  of  milk  and  a  rich  yellow  cream. 
Sheep  and  swine  greedily  devour  them  and  soon  fatten  if 
plentifully  supplied  with  them.  The  Dutch  grate  them,  and 
with  sugar  and  salt,  make  a  pickle  for  their  choicest  table 
butter.  They  are  also  employed  in  distilling.  The  aver- 
age yield  on  good  land  may  be  estimated  at  about  300  bush- 
els of  the  smaller,  and  450  of  the  Belgian  or  white,  per  B.c.r^ 
but  with  extra  cultivation,  1000  bushels  of  the  last  ^^'^  ^^^n 
raised.  ^.  < 

THE  PARSNEP (^Pn-^^ca  sativa) 

Is  cultivated  as  a  field  r-p'  and  is  of  nearly  equal  nutritious 
value  with  the  car--  ^^  ^^  "^^y  ^^  heavier  for  parsneps 
than  for  ca»-^'*  ^"^  ^^^^  ^'^^  ®^®"  thrive  on  a  strong  clay 
if  ri'*^'  '^  pulverized  and  dry.  Large  crops  can  only  be 
^utained  on  deep,  rich  ground,  well  pulverized.  They 
should  be  sown  early  as  frosts  do  not  affect  them  and 
they  require  a  long  time  to  come  to  maturity.  Drilling  at  a 
distance  of  20  inches  apart,  is  the  proper  mode  of  planting, 
and  they  should  be  thinned  to  a  space  of  6  or  8  inches.  It 
requires  4  or  5  lbs.  of  seed  per  acre  which  must  be  of  the 
previous  year's  growth,  as  older  does  not  readily  vegetate. 
No  preparation  of  the  seed  is  necessary.  The  subsequent 
cultivation  is  similar  to  that  of  carrots,  and  they  will  gener- 
ally yield  more  under  similar  circumstances  of  soil  and  tillage. 
They  are  little  subject  to  disease  or  enemies. 

The  gathering  should  be  deferred  till  the  frost  loaves  the 
ground  in  spring  unless  wanted  ibr  winter's  use,  as  ttiey  keep 
F* 


154  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

best  in  the  ground  where  they  are  uninjured  by  the  intensest 
frost.  But  particular  care  should  be  observed  in  allowing  no 
standing  water  on  them  or  they  will  rot.  When  taken  up  in 
the  fall,  the  roots  should  neither  be  trimmed  or  broken,  nor 
should  the  tops  be  cut  too  near  the  root.  They  must  be  stored 
in  a  cool  place  and  covered  carefully  with  earth,  as  exposure 
to  air  or  even  moderate  heat  wilts  them. 

Uses. — The  parsnep  is  one  of  our  most  delicious  table 
vegetables.  It  is  an  excellent  food  for  swine  either  raw  or 
cooked,  and  for  cattle,  milch  cows  and  sheep  it  is  highly  priz- 
ed. Qualey  says,  "  it  is  not  as  valuable  for  horses  for  though 
it  produces  fat  and  a  fine  appearance,  it  causes  them  to  sweat 
profusely,  and  if  eaten  when  the  shoot  starts  in  the  spring  it 
produces  inflammation  in  the  eyes  and  epiphora  or  weeping." 
The  leaves  of  both  carrots  and  parsneps  are  good  for  cattle 
green  or  dried.  Gerarde  who  wrote  in  1596  says.  "  an  ex- 
cellent bread  was  made  from  them  in  his  time."  They  have 
also  like  the  carrot  been  used  for  distillation,  and  are  said  to 
afford  a  \cry  good  vinous  beverage.  The  best  variety  for 
field  culture  ia  the  large  Jersey. 

THE    BEET  (Beta.) 

'There  are  but  two  varieties  of  the  beet  in  general  use  for  the 
field,  vu^  c^ngrar  beet  and  mangold  wurzel,  both  of  which  have 
several  sub-vanv>,>s.  They  are  of  various  colors,  red,  pink, 
yellow,  white  or  moti.oa.  v.„t  color  does  not  seem  to  affect  their 
quality.  The  conditions  una.,  y^i^^  they  grow  are  similar. 
Beets  do  well  in  any  soil  of  suffice...,  ^  ^^  and  fertility,  but 
they  are  per  laps  most  partial  to  a  strong  1^.  .,^^  jp  ^r^n  tilled 
they  will  pr'^'duce  large  crops  on  a  tenacious  cla^ .  ^^  have 
raised  at  tl  o  rate  of  800  bushels  to  the  acre  on  a  su«  i 
which  had  b  ?en  well  supplied  with  unfermented  manure.  1  tib 
soil  cannot  be  made  too  rich.  For  such  as^are  adhesive, 
fresh  or  unfermented  manures  are  much  the  best. 

The  PLA^iTiNG  should  be  in  drills  20  to  24  inches  asunder, 
tit  the  rate  of  4  to  6  lbs.  of  seed  per  acre,  buried  not  over 
one  inch  deep.  The  seed  should  be  early  plantetl  or  as  soon 
as  vegetation  will  i)roceed  rapidly,  but  must  first  be  soaked 
by  pouring  soft  scalding  water  on  it,  allowing  it  to  cool  to 
blood  heat,  and  remain  for  3  or  4  days,  then  roll  in  plasjer 
and  drill  it  in.  The  husk  or  outer  covering  of  the  seed  is 
thick  and  impervious  to  moisture, and  without  a  thorough  pre- 
vious saturatioD,  will  not  readily  germinate. 


ROOTS.  155 

The  CULTURE  is  similar  to  that  of  carrots  and  parsneps. 
They  should  be  thinned  to  a  distance  of  about  8  inches  and 
all  vacancies  filled  up  with  strong  thrifty  plants.  It  is  better 
to  sow  thick  enough  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  transplanting, 
for  in  addition  to  the  time  and  ex|)ense  of  this  operation,  the 
new  plants  will  not  thrive  as  well  as  those  which  grow  in 
their  ranks  from  the  seed.  The  above  distances  are  suitable 
for  the  sugar  beet ;  the  mangold  wurzel  attains  a  larger  size 
and  the  spaces  may  be  increased.  The  practice  of  plucking 
off  the  leaves  for  cattle-feeding  is  objectionable,  as  it  materi- 
ally interferes  with  the  growth  of  the  plants.  Scarcely  any 
disease  or  enemy  troubles  it  except  when  young.  It  is  then 
sometimes  though  rarely  attacked  by  grubs  or  small  insects. 

Harvesting  may  be  commenced  soon  after  the  first  leaves 
turn  yellow  and  before  the  frosts  have  injured  them.  The  tops 
must  not  be  too  closely  trimmed,  nor  the  crown  of  the  roots 
or  its  fibrous  prongs  cut  from  such  as  are  destined  for  late 
keeping.  If  intended  for  early  winter  use,  they  may  be 
abridged  a  trifle,  and  after  the  surface  is  dry,  stored  like  other 
roots.  They  do  not  need  as  effectual  protection  as  potatoes, 
for  if  the  frost  touches  them  under  a  covering  of  earth,  it  will 
gradually  be  withdrawn  on  the  approach  of  warm  weather 
and  leave  the  roots  uninjured  ;  but  they  will  not  keep  as  long 
as  if  untouched  by  the  irost.  A  slight  opening  for  the  escape 
of  the  gas,  as  with  the  other  roots,  should  be  left  at  the  top 
and  partially  guarded  with  straw. 

Uses. — The  beet  is  a  universal  favorite  for  the  table  and 
of  great  value  for  stock.  Domestic  animals  never  tire  of  it 
and  swine  prefer  it  to  any  other  root  excepting  the  parsnep. 
We  have  kept  a  large  herd  in  the  best  condition  through  the 
winter  on  no  other  food  than  the  raw  sugar  beet.  They  pos- 
sess additional  merit  from  their  capability  of  resisting  decay 
longer  than  the  turnep,  and  frequently  beyond  the  carrot 
and  parsnep.  They  will  be  solid,  fresh  and  juicy  late  in  the 
spring  if  properly  stored,  and  at  a  time  too  when  they  are 
most  wanted  for  ailing  sheep  or  cattle,  milch  cows  or  ewes, 
or  for  contributing  to  the  support  and  health  of  any  of  the 
ordinary  stock.  When  fed  to  fattening  animals,  they  should 
follow  and  never  precede  the  turnep.  It  has  been  found 
that  such  animals  continue  steadily  to  advance  in  flesh  after 
being  carried  to  a  certain  point  with  turneps  if  shifted  on  to 
the  beet,  but  in  repeated  instances  they  have  fallen  back  if 
changed  from  beets  to  turneps.  Davy  found  in  1000  parts, 
the  following  quantity  of  nutritive  or  soluble  matter.    White 


156  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

or  English  turneps,  42;  Swede,  64;  mangold  wurzel,  136  ; 
sugar  beet,  146.  This  order  of  nutrititive  quality  is  followed 
by  Boussingault,  though  he  places  the  field  beet  and  Swede 
turnep  at  nearly  the  same  point.  Einhof  and  Thaer  on  the 
contrary  place  the  Swede  before  mangold  wurzel.  But  in 
feeding  to  animals,  unless  for  an  occasional  change,  the 
roots  should  be  given  out  in  the  order  named.  The  sugar 
beet  is  seen  to  be  more  nutritious  than  the  mangold  wurzel, 
it  is  equally  liardy  and  productive  and  more  palatable  to 
stock,  and  of  course  is  to  be  preferred  for  raising.  The  for- 
mer has  been  largely  cultivated  in  France  and  Germany, 
for  making  into  sugar,  where  it  has  been  entirely  successful, 
because  protected  by  an  adequate  impost  on  the  imported 
article.  Their  conversion  into  sugar  has  repeatedly  been 
attempted  in  this  country,  but  it  cannot  probably  sustain  a 
successful  competition  with  the  cane.  From  the  experi. 
ments  of  M.  Darracq,  it  has  been  found,  that  in  summer  the 
best  yielded  from  3^  to  4  per  cent,  of  sugar,  but  in  October 
after  the  commencement  of  frost,  it  gave  only  syrup  and 
saltpetre,  and  no  crystalizable  sugar.  When  used  for  this 
purpose,  the  resr-^uum  of  the  pulp  after  expressing  the  juice 
is  given  to  cattle.  When  wilted,  the  leaves  are  also  fed  to 
them,  but  caution  is  necessary  to  prevent  their  scouring. 
What  are  not  tlms  used  are  plowed  in  for  manure.  The 
beet  is  also  distilled  and  yields  about  half  the  product  of 
potatoes. 

THE  JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE  (Helianfhus  tuherosus,) 

A  native  of  Brazil,  is  a  hardy  plant,  but  little  cultivated. 
Loudon  says  the  name  Jerusalem  is  a  corruption  of  the  Ital- 
ian word  girasole,  (or  sun-flower,)  the  blossom  of  which  it 
closely  resembles  except  in  size.  It  flourishes  in  a  moist, 
loose  soil  or  sandy  loam,  with  little  care  except  to  thin  out 
and  p4*event  weeds.  It  is  very  productive  and  easily  culti- 
vated in  drills,  tliree  or  four  feet  apart.  The  planting  may 
be  done  in  March  or  April.  As  it  is  not  injured  by  frost 
and  is  very  prolific,  it  will  spread  rapidly  and  often  becomes 
a  pest  in  the  garden.  The  product  is  enormous,  some- 
times overrunning,  it  is  said,  2,000  bushels  per  acre.  Its 
nutritive  qualities  are  much  less  ihan  those  of  the  potato, 
but  its  great  productiveness  and  the  facility  of  raising  it, 
would  seem  to  commend  it  to  more  general  favor.  Bous- 
singault considers  it  an  improving  and  profitable  crop  from 


FRUITS.  157 

its  drawing  its  nitrogen  largely  from  the  atmosphere.  It  is 
peculiarly  fitted  for  a  spring  feed,  as  the  roots  lie  uninjured 
by  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  and  may  be  talien  out  in 
perfection  after  most  other  roots  are  gone. 

The  USES  of  the  Jerusalem  artichoke  in  this  country  are 
both  for  human  and  animal  food.  The  roots  arc  generally 
used  as  a  pickle  or  salad.  Loudon  says  "  tliey  may  also  be 
eaten  boiled,  mashed  in  butter,  or  baked  ki  pies,  and  have  an 
excellent  flavor."  The  tops  when  cut  and  cured  as  hay, 
aiTord  a  good  fodder  for  cattle,  and  the  roots  are  excellent 
for  sheep  and  other  stock.  Swine  will  thrive  upon  them 
through  the  winter,  and  do  their  own  harvesting  when  the 
ground  is  not  locked  up  by  frost. 


NOTE  . 

We  give  on  the  following  pages  the  table  of  nutrive  equivalents  of  food,  compiled 
by  Boussingaull,  as  a  convenient  reference,  though  not  entirely  reliable  in  all 
cases.  For  it  will  be  seen  from  what  has  before  been  said,  that  the  particular 
plants  vary  not  only  according  to  the  season  and  soil,  but  also  frequently,  accord- 
ing to  the  particular  variety  subject  to  analysis.  He  says:  "In  the  lollowing  table, 
to  the  numbers  assigned  by  the  theory,  1  have  added  those  of  the  whole  which  1 
find  in  the  entire  series  of  observations  that  have  come  to  my  knowledge.  1  have 
also  given  the  standard  quantity  of  water,  and  the  quantity  of  azote,  contained  in 
each  species  of  food.  When  the  theoretical  equivalents  do  not  ditfer  too  widely 
from  those  supplied  by  direct  observation,  I  believe  that  they  ought  to  be  preferred. 
The  details  of  my  experiments,  and  the  precautions  needful  in  entering  on  and 
carrying  them  through,  must  have  satisfied  every  one  of  the  difficulties  attending 
their  conduct;  yet  all  allow  how  little  these  have  been  attentively  contemplated, 
and  what  slender  measures  of  precaution  against  error  have  been  taken.  In  luy 
opinion,  direct  observation  or  experiment  is  indispensable,  but  mainly,  solely  as  a 
means  of  checking  within  rather  wide  limits  the  results  of  chemical  analysis." 


158 


AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 


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160  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  X 


FRUITS. 

The  growing  of  fruits  to  the  extent  at  least  of  the  demands 
for  his  own  use,  should  never  be  neglected  by  the  farmer. 
The  soil  and  climate  of  the  United  States  are  almost  every- 
where suited  to  their  cheap  and  easy  production.  They  are 
a  source  of  profit  for  market  purposes  as  well  as  useful  to 
stock  ;  and  they  afford  some  of  the  choicest  and  most  eco- 
nomical luxuries  for  domestic  use.  Success  in  their  cultiva- 
tion may  at  all  times  be  secured  by  a  judicious  selection  of 
the  fruit,  the  soil  and  location,  and  by  proper  attention 
thereafter. 

THE    APPLE. 

The  locality  of  the  apple  orchard  should  depend  much  on 
the  climate  and  soil.  In  warm  latitudes,  a  northerly  expo- 
sure is  perhaps  best  when  not  subject  to  violent  winds,  as 
these  from  any  quarter  are  liable  to  blast  the  fruit  while  in 
blossom,  and  blow  it  from  the  tree  before  it  is  ripe.  It  is 
generally  advantageous  to  protect  an  orchard  from  the  bleak 
winds  which  prevail  in  its  immediate  neighborhood  by  a 
judicious  selection  of  the  ground.  A  warm  and  sunny  posi- 
tion subjects  the  buds  in  spring  to  premature  swelling,  and 
these  are  often  cut  off  by  the  severe  spring  frosts  that  follow, 
when  an  ordinary  or  northern  exposure  would  retard  their 
budding  until  the  season  was  sufficiently  advanced  for  t^"* 
protection.  The  orchard  should  have  a  medium  pn-^'^^  ^^ 
to  exposure  and  the  influences  of  the  season. 

Soil.— All  the  varieties  intermediate  b^V'""-^^'^^,  ^  ^^'5 
unyielding  clay  and  a  light  shifting -and.  aye  friendly  to  the 
apple.  The  soil  best  suited  io  iho  perfection  of  fruit  is  a 
moist,  friable,  calcareous  loam,  slightly  intermixed  with  fine 
gravel.  This  may  run  cither  into  a  sandy  loam,  which 
usually  rests  upon  a  sub  soil  of  sand  or  gravel  j  or  into  a 


PRl/ITS.  161 

clayey  loam  with  a  sub  soil  of  stiff  clay.  Either  of  these  is 
a  good  soil  for  the  orchard.  The  ground  should  be  rich 
enough  for  the  production  of  good  crops  of  grain,  roots  or 
grass.  This  state  of  fertility  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
thrifty  growth  of  the  tree  and  its  existence  in  a  healthy  and 
vigorous  state.  Springy  or  wet  land  is  decidedly  bad  for  an 
orchard,  and  if  the  farmer  can  appropriate  no  other  for  this 
purpose,  it  should  be  well  drained,  either  by  under-ground 
ditches  or  open  trenches  sufficiently  deep  to  carry  off  the 
water  for  a  depth  at  least  two  feet  below  the  surface,  so  as  to 
leave  the  soil  perforated  by  the  roots,  in  a  warm  and  active 
state.  Rocky  and  stony  soils  of  the  above  descriptions  are 
usually  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees.  The 
stones  keep  the  ground  moist,  loose  and  light.  Some  of  the 
finest  fruits  grow  where  there  is  scarcely  room  to  deposit 
the  tree  between  the  huge  rocks.  They  should  not  however 
lie  too  deep  when  close  together,  as  they  will  impede  and 
control  the  growth  of  the  roots.  A  sufficient  area  of  earth 
is  always  necessary  for  an  ample  growth  of  wood  and  the 
full  size  of  the  tree  at  maturity.  Stiff  clays  and  light  blow- 
ing sands  under  very  nice  cultivation  will  grow  fruits,  but 
they  require  active  manure.  Clays  should  be  often  plowed, 
particularly  in  the  fall,  that  the  soil  may  be  ameliorated  by 
the  winter  frosts.  The  sands  require  compact  culture, 
and  appropriate  manures.  All  such  as  are  suited  to  ordi- 
nary crops  on  these  lands  will  promote  the  growth  of  treesr. 
The  use  of  other  soils  however  for  the  orchard  should  be 
preferred,  as  the  fruit  will  be  larger,  fairer  and  better  fla- 
vored, and  the  trees  of  much  longer  duration. 

Planting. — Dig  the  holes  from  three  to  six  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  deep,  according  to  the 
kind  of  soil  and  the  size  of  the  tree.  The  more  compact 
the  soil,  the  deeper  and  larger  should  be  the  hole.  When 
ready  to  plant,  let  enough  of  the  best  or  top  soil  be  thrown 
into  the  botom  of  the  hole,  so  that  the  tree  may  stand  about 
one  inch  lower  than  when  removed  from  the  nursery.  The 
tree  should  be  taken  up  so  as  to  injure  the  roots  as  little  as 
possible.  If  any  be  broken,  cut  them  off,  either  square  or 
obliquely  with  a  fine  saw  or  sharp  knife.  If  left  in  their 
bruised  or  broken  condition,  they  will  canker  and  decay  in 
the  ground,  but  if  thus  cut  off,  numerous  rootlets  will  spring 
out  at  the  termination  of  the  amputated  root,  which  strikes 
into  the  soft  earth  and  give  increased  support  to  the  tree.  If 
the  soil  be  poor,  the  roots  should  be  covered  and  the  holes 


182  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

filled  with  good  earth.  If  the  hole  be  small,  the  surrounding 
land  hard,  and  the  roots  bent  up  and  cramped,  the  tree  can- 
not grow,  or  if  after  a  long  time  of  doubt  and  delay,  it  finally 
survives,  it  creeps  along  with  a  snail's  pace,  making  little  re- 
turn to  the  planter.  If  the  tree  be  crooked,  confine  it  with  a 
straw  band  to  a  stake  firmly  planted  in  the  ground.  This  is 
the  best  ligature,  as  it  does  not  cut  the  bark,  which  small  cords 
often  do,  and  it  gradually  gives  way  as  the  tree  increases  in 
size.  When  thus  planted,  well  manured  and  looked  after 
subsequently,  the  tree  thrives  and  in  a  few  years  rewards 
the  owner  with  its  delicious  and  abundant  fruit. 

The  season  of  planting  may  be  any  time  after  the  fall  of 
the  leaf  by  frost  in  autumn,  till  its  reappearance  in  the  spring, 
provided  the  ground  be  not  frozen.  Early  spring  is  to  be 
preferred  for  planting  stone  fruits.  They  may  be  planted 
while  in  embryo  leaf  and  blossom  with  entire  success,  but  it 
is  usually  best  to  do  this  before  the  bud  is  much  swollen. — 
If  one  time  be  equally  convenient  with  another,  we  recom- 
mend fall  planting  for  fruit  generally,  as  the  earth  then  be- 
comes settled  about  the  root  early  in  the  season.  This  is 
particularly  advantageous  when  the  spring  is  succeeded  by  a 
severe  summer's  drought.  So  important  is  the  operation  of 
planting,  that  it  is  better  to  have  one  tree  well  planted,  than 
three  planted  badly,  and  more  fruit  may  be  anticipated  within 
the  first  ten  years  if  not  forever,  from  the  first  one  than  from 
all  the  others.  It  some  times  occurs  that  in  removing  trees 
from  a  great  distance,  they  arrive  too  late  in  the  fall  to  be 
properly  transplanted.  In  such  case  a  trench  should  be  dug 
in  soft  earth  and  the  trees  laid  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  three 
or  four  inches  apart,  the  roots  carefully  placed  to  prevent 
breaking,  and  the  earth  piled  on  them  for  a  foot  up  the  trunk, 
and  eight  or  ten  inches  over  the  roots.  This  will  preserve 
them  until  spring  without  detriment  to  their  future  growth. — 
The  practice  is  adopted  by  nurserymen  and  others,  who  of- 
ten transplant  their  trees  from  one  location  to  another  with- 
out loss  or  difficulty.  Trees  should  never  be  planted  in  the 
apple  orchard  at  a  less  distance  than  two  rods,  and  forty  feet 
apart  is  better.  Close  planting  prevents  the  trees  from  re-* 
ceiving  the  requisite  quantity  of  sun  and  the  free  circulation  of 
air,  both  of  which  are  essential  to  the  size,  flavor  and  perfect, 
tion  of  fruit.  Forty  trees  will  plant  an  acre,  at  the  distance 
of  two  rods  apart.  The  consequence  of  closer  planting  is 
the  premature  decay  of  the  trees  and  an  inferior  quality  of 
fruit. 


PRUlTS.  163 

Cultivation. — A  previously  uncultivated  or  virgin  soil 
is  the  best  for  an  orchard,  but  if  such  is  not  to  be  had,  that 
which  has  been  long  in  pasture  or  meadow  is  most  suitable. 
The  most  efficient  manures  are  swamp  muck,  decayed 
leaves  and  vegetables,  rotten  wood,  chip  manure,  lime, 
ashes,  gypsum,  &c.  Trees,  like  any  other  vegetable,  draw 
their  own  specific  food,  largely  from  the  soil,  and  to  supply 
the  elements  of  their  growth  in  abundance,  the  earth  should 
occasionally  be  renewed  with  those  materials  which  may 
have  become  partially  or  wholly  exhausted.  When  care- 
fully plowed  and  cultivated  in  hoed  crops,  orchards  thrive 
most  rapidly,  care  being  always  taken  to  protect  the  trees 
from  damage  either  to  the  trunks  or  roots.  All  tearing  of 
the  roots  is  objectionable.  The  ground  should  be  kept  rich 
and  open,  so  as  to  be  pervious  to  the  influence  of  rains,  the 
sun  and  the  atmosphere.  Under  these  conditions  the  trees 
will  thrive  vigorously.  When  lands  are  kept  in  grass,  a 
space  of  three  to  six  feet  in  diameter,  according  to  the  age 
and  size  of  the  tree,  should  always  be  kept  free  from  turf 
around  them.  Pastures  which  are  trodden  by  animals, 
are  so  bared  by  this  and  the  closeness  of  their  cropping  that 
the  roots  of  the  trees  get  their  share  of  benefit  from  the  sun 
and  rains.  From  this  cause  pastures  are  better  suited  to 
orchards  than  mowing  lands  ;  for  the  latter  are  so  com- 
pletely covered  by  the  rank  growth  of  grass  that  the  tree 
sufl[*ers,  and  without  the  aid  of  manures  and  the  annual 
loosening  of  the  ground  for  a  few  feet  around,  the  tree  in 
some  cases  dies  from  exhaustion.  All  kinds  of  cereal  grains 
are  bad  for  orchards,  except  perhaps  buckwheat.  The  pre- 
paration of  the  ground  for  this  crop  by  early  summer  plow- 
ing, is  highly  condusive  to  the  growth  of  trees,  and  its  nutri- 
ment being  drawn  largely  from  the  air,  it  robs  the  roots  of 
a  small  amount  only  of  the  materials  in  the  soil. 

A  neighboring  farmer,  whose  management  many  years 
since  came  under  our  notice,  had  a  small  mowing  lot  adjoin- 
ing his  barn  and  cattle  sheds,  which  was  surrounded  with  a 
stone  wall.  The  soil  was  a  moist  gravelly  loam,  every  way 
fitted  for  the  growth  of  apple  trees,  as  was  shown  by  there 
having  been  several  flourishing  orchards  on  similar  soils  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  He  flailed  this  with  apple  trees  set 
in  small  holes  at  the  proper  distances,  the  rows  terminating 
on  each  side  close  to  the  wall  and  also  near  his  barn  and 
sheds.  After  setting  out,  the  trees  were  staked  and  then 
left  to  grow,  as  best  they  could  without  farther  cultivation. 


164  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Those  remote  from  the  wall  and  buildings  remained  station- 
ary for  several  years,  while  those  under  their  influence, 
after  two  or  three  years  began  to  show  a  vigorous  growth. 
The  grass  was  removed  annually  and  the  trees  received  no 
cultivation,  save  perhaps  a  bushel  or  two  of  chip  manure 
occasionally  thrown  around  them.  Twenty  years  after  they 
were  planted,  the  trees  next  to  the  wall  and  buildings  were 
thrifty  and  had  attained  a  large  size,  while  many  of  the  oth- 
ers had  died,  a  few  had  grown  to  one-fourth  the  size  of  the 
outer  ones  and  others  were  still  smaller,  mossy  and  showing 
signs  of  a  premature  old  age.  Not  one-third  of  the  trees 
gave  any  return  whatever.  The  wall  and  buildings  kept 
the  soil  next  them  light  and  moist,  while  that  in  the  more 
open  field  spent  all  its  energy  upon  the  grass.  An  orchard 
to  be  productive  and  profitable,  must  he  cultivated,  and  with- 
out this,  it  is  useless  to  plant  it. 

Pruning. — This  operation  should  commence- at  the  plant- 
ing of  the  tree,  the  top  of  which  should  alw^aysghe  in  propor- 
tion to  the  size  and  number  of  the  roots.  If  the  top  be  high 
and  spindling,  shorten  it  so  as  to  throw  the  lateral  shoots  into 
a  graceful  and  branching  form.  The  limbs  may  commence 
about  six  feet  from  the  ground.  The  pruning  should  be  done 
annually  as  the  labor  is  then  trifling,  and  the  expenditure  of 
vital  force  in  maturing  wood  which  is  afler wards  to  be  cut 
off  is  thus  saved,  and  the  branches  to  be  removed  being  small 
the  wounds  readily  heal.  In  this  case  no  covering  is  requir- 
ed for  the  wound  as  one  season's  growth  will  heal  it.  The 
top  should  be  sufficiently  open  to  admit  the  sun  and  air. — 
The  best  time  for  trimming  is  when  the  tree  is  in  bloom,  and 
the  sap  in  full  flow.  The  proper  instrument  is  a  fine  saw  or 
sharp  knife,  and  the  limb  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  re- 
maining branch.  The  sap  at  this  time  is  active,  and  is  read- 
ily converted  into  new  bark  and  wood,  which  speedly  forms 
over  the  cut.  But  this  is  a  busy  season  with  the  farmer,  and 
if  he  cannot  then  pmne  his  trees  he  may  do  it  when  more 
convenient,  taking  care  to  secure  the  wounds  by  an  efficienj 
covering  of  salvo.  Old  trees  or  such  as  are  growing  vigor- 
ously and  have  been  long  neglected,  oflen  require  severe 
trimming,  which  should  always  be  done  in  May  or  June,  and 
when  the  wounds  are  large  they  should  be  covered  with  a 
coat  of  thick  Spanish  brown  pauit  or  grafting  wax.  If  they 
are  left  exposed  and  the  growth  of  the  tree  be  slow,  decay  will 
oflen  take  place  before  they  are  healed.  Too  much  care 
cannot  be  used  in  these  operations.     In  large  trees,  a  ladder 


FRUITS.  165 

should  always  be  at  hand  to  avoid  breaking  the  limbs  by  the 
weight  of  the  operator.  If  by  too  close  planting  the  branch- 
es of  difierent  trees  be  brought  into  contact,  thorough  prun- 
ing is  absolutely  necessary,  as  without  it  good  fruit  cannot  be 
obtained. 

Grafting  and  Budding. — These  operations  are  so  sim- 
ple, and  usually  so  well  known  by  some  individual  in  every 
farming  neighborhood,  that  no  written  description  of  either 
operation  is  necessary.  Gi'afting  wax  of  the  best  kind  is 
thus  made.'  Take  four  parts  of  rosin,  one  of  tallow  and  one 
of  beeswax,  melt  and  stir  them  well  together,  then  pour  them 
into  a  bucket  or  pan  of  cold  water.  As  soon  as  cool  enough  to 
be  handled,  work  it  over  and  draw  it  out  like  shoe -maker's 
wax  until  it  is  entirely  pliable.  It  may  then  be  used  imme- 
diately or  laid  up  and  kept  for  years.  The  mode  of  applying 
it  is  known  to^every  grafter.  Scions  should  always  be  of 
the  growth  of  the  proceeding  year  and  cut  from  well  ripened, 
thrifty  wood  in  the  months  of  January,  February  or  March, 
before  the  buds  begin  to  swell  with  the  flow  of  the  spring 
sap.  Tie  them  up  and  keep  in  a  moist  cool  place,  a  cellar 
bottom,  or  box  of  moss  or  ear:h  till  ready  for  use.  When  cir- 
cumstances require  it,  grafts  may  be  cut  at  any  time  after  the 
fall  of  the  leaf,  but  the  months  indicated  are  best  in  all  locali- 
ties north  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers.  July  and  August 
are  the  best  i'lmo  f 01  budding.  This  should  always  be  done 
while  the  sap  is  in  flow  and  the  bark  is  loose,  as  at  no  other 
time  is  success  certain. 

Selection  of  Trees. — These  should  always  be  selected 
from  seedlings.  Suckers  from  the  roots  of  grown  trees  are 
objectionable  as  tending  to  throw  up  suckers  themselves  which 
are  always  troublesome.  When  they  appear,  these  should 
be  cut  close  to  the  root  or  stem,  and  if  properly  done,  they 
will  rarely  sprout  anew. 

Planting  the  Seed. — If  the  farmer  wish  to  raise  his  own 
trees,  he  can  sow  the  seed  or  pomace  in  rows  in  the  fall.  Af- 
ter they  come  up  in  the  spring,  weed  and  hoe  them  like  any 
vegetable.  When  a  year  old,  they  should  be  carefully  taken 
up,  the  tap  root  cut  off  and  replanted  in  rows  four  feet  apart, 
and  at  least  a  foot  distant  in  the  rows,  when  they  should  be 
regularly  trimmed  and  cultivated  till  they  are  1  h  or  2  inches 
diameter  at  the  base,  at  which  time  they  are  fit  for  the  orch- 
ard. These  operations  are  however  the  appropriate  business 
of  the  nurseryman,  for  whose  guidance  there  should  always 
be  at  hand,  some  standard  work  on  the  cultivation  of  fruits* 


166  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Of  these,  Kenrick's  and  Downing's  areat  present,  the  best 
American  treatises. 

Gathering  and  Preserving. — For  immediate  use  apples 
may  be  shaken  from  the  tree.  For  winter  consumption  or 
packing  for  market,  they  should  be  carefully  picked  by  hand 
with  the  aid  of  ladders,  to  avoid  bruising  the  fruit  and  injur- 
ing the  limbo.  To  preserve  apples,  the  best  method  is  to  lay 
them  carefully  into  tight  barrels  or  boxes,  immediately  after 
picking  with  a  thin  layer  of  perfectly  dry  chaff  on  the  bottom; 
and  after  being  lightly  shaken  together,  another  layer  of 
chaft"  on  the  top  may  be  added,  though  this  is  not  essential. 
They  may  then  be  tightly  headed  or  covered  so  as  to  exclude 
the  air.  The  boxes  or  barrels  should  then  be  put  away  into 
a  dry  place,  and  kept  as  cold  as  possible  above  the  freezing 
point.  But  if  slightly  frozen,  they  will  not  be  injured  if  suf- 
fered to  remain  unpacked  till  the  frost  leaves  ^them.  Thus 
managed  they  will  keep  as  long  as  they  are  capable  of  preser- 
vation. Bins  in  the  cellar  are  good  for  ordinary  use  if  close- 
ly covered.  If  exposed  to  the  air,  warmth  or  moisture,  ap- 
ples soon  decay.  If  too  dry,  they  wilt  and  become  tasteless. 
They  are  sometimes  buried  in  the  earth  like  potatoes,  but 
this  is  very  liable  to  impair  the  flavor  and  give  them  an  earthly 
taste ;  and  they  seldom  keep  so  well  after  removal  in  the 
spring  as  when  they  have  been  stored  in  barrels. 

For  FARM  STOCK  apples  are  extremely  profitable,  and  the 
better  the  quality  of  fruit  the  more  valuable  are  they  for  this 
object.  A  variety  of  both  sweet  and  sub-acid  should  be  cul- 
tivated. The  sacharine  matter  of  the  apple  is  the  principal 
nutritive  properly  and  this  abounds  in  some  kinds  of  the  sub- 
acid. Animals  like  a  change  in  their  food  as  well  as  man, 
and  both  these  varieties  should,  therefore,  l)e  fed  to  them  alter- 
nately. When  the  soil  and  climate  are  adapted  to  them,  we 
have  no  doubt  that  apples  for  stock,  can  bo  grown  cheaper  than 
any  other  kind  of  food,  excepting  grass.  Hogs  have  been 
often  fatted  upon  them  with  an  occasional  change,  to  grain  ; 
and  when  fetl  to  horses,  neat  cattle,  and  sheep  with  hay,  tlu^y 
are  almost  ccjuivalent  to  roots.  That  tree  must  be  badly  cul- 
tivated which  in  ten  years  after  planting  will  not  produce  five 
bushels  of  apples ;  and  these,  at  ten  cents  a  bushel,  give  an 
annual  revenue  of  fifty  cents  a  tree,  or  twenty  dollars  per  acre 
for  stock-feeding  alone.  At  twenty  years  old,  the  tree  will 
double  that  product,  casualties  excepted,  and  as  this  estimate 
is  based  on  their  least  valuable  use,  an  increased  profit,  of 
course  may  be  anticipated    from  their  conversion  to  other 


FRITITS.  167 

purposes.  Good  apples  are  rarely  worth  less  than  twenty-five 
cents  a  bushel  in  market ;  often  three  or  four  times  that 
amount.  The  ranging  of  swine  among  any  kind  of  fruit  trees 
greatly  conduces  to  their  health  and  growth.  Besides  the 
support  of  the  swine,  their  consumption  of  windfalls  secures 
the  destruction  of  the  insects  in  them.  Sheep,  turkies,  ducks 
and  chickens  answer  the  same  purpose  when  suffered  to  fre- 
quent them  in  sufficient  numbers. 

Making  cider. — Good  fri  it  is  indispensable  to  the  making 
of  good  cider.  The  suitable  time  for  this  is  in  October  and 
November,  and  apples  to  be  thus  appropriated  should  ripen  in 
these  months.  Such  as  are  slightly  acid  are  excellent  for 
this  purpose.  As  far  as  practicable,  the  fruit  should  be  of 
one  kind,  fully  ripe,  yet  sound  and  undecayed.  The  mill 
must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  with  hot  water,  and  capable  of 
grinding  the  pomace  fine.  This  should  lie  in  the  vat  at  least 
forty-eight  hours  after  grinding,  and  be  turned  once  or  twice 
before  its  removal  into  the  cheese.  Pomace  so  exposed  ab- 
sorbs large  quantities  of  oxygen,  thus  undergoing  a  necessary 
change  for  its  conversion  into  good  cider.  All  fruits  are 
subject  to  this  change  to  a  certain  extent  just  before  ripen- 
ing. Wh'^n  their  juices  are  expressed  or  the  pulp  broken 
and  exposed  to  the  air  this  effect  is  increased,  and  constitutes 
the  saccharine  fermeniatioju  In  both  cases,  the  result  is  to 
increase  the  palatable  and  nutritive  properties  of  the  fruit,  by 
converting  the  starch,  gum  and  other  vegetable  matters  into 
sugar. 

When  the  pomace  has  been  sufficiently  pressed,  it  may  be 
fed  to  cattle,  sheep,  or  swine,  and  the  liquor  put  into  barrels 
in  a  cool  place  and  allowed  to  remain  till  the  pulp  or  feculent 
matter  has  been  thrown  out  at  the  bung,  and  to  aid  its  remo- 
val the  barrel  should  be  kept  full.  The  second  fermentation 
is  the  vinous,  and  by  it  a  portion  of  alcohol  is  developed^ 
which  is  slowly  continued  afterwards  in  the  enclosed  cask, 
until  it  reaches  from  6  to  9  per  cent.  When  fermentation 
apparently  subsides,  the  cider  should  be  drawn  into  clean  bar- 
rels and  tightly  bunged.  Previous  to  doing  this,  a  little  sul- 
phur should  be  burned  in  the  cask  to  arrest  the  fermentation. 
The  addition  of  charcoal,  raisins,  mustard  seed,  fresh  meat, 
&c.  produces  the  same  efiect.  After  standing  two  or  three 
months,  closely  confined  in  a  cool  place,  it  may  be  drawn  off 
and  tightly  bottled  for  use.  Its  long  preservation  and  im- 
provement will  depend  on  its  being  kept  cool  and  well  corked. 
In  addition  to  its  possessing  a  small  proportion  of  alcohol,  it 


168  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

then  contains  large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which 
occasions  its  lively  effervessence  when  uncorcked,  and  gives 
to  it  that  peculiarly  pungent  and  agreeable  flavor  so  highly 
relished. 

Vinegar. — If  the  cider  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cask  in 
which  it  is  first  placed,  and  exposed  to  a  warm  temperature,  it 
continues  greedily  to  absorb  oxygen  and  quickly  undergoes 
another  fermentation  called  the  acetic^  by  which  it  is  converted 
into  vinegar  ;  and  even  if  intended  solely  for  this  purpose,  the 
best  and  richest  fruit  is  most  valuable.  When  the  vinegar 
has  acquired  its  perfection  it  should  be  kept  air-tight  at  a  low 
temperature. 

Best  varieties  of  apples  for  cultivation. — Almost 
every  section  of  the  apple-growing  regions  of  America  has  a 
greater  or  less  variety  peculiar  to  itself,  and  their  valuable 
properties  appear  more  fully  developed  in  these  localities  than 
when  removed  to  others.  Such  should  of  course  be  retained 
when  of  extraordinary  excellence.  There  are  varieties, 
however,  which  are  of  more  general  cultivation,  cosmopolites 
throughout  the  apple  climates,  of  fine  quality,  and  possessing 
all  the  excellence. of  which  the  genus  is  capable.  Thirty 
difterent  kinds  for  each  section  or  state,  will  probably  include 
all  which  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate,  and  for  any  one  location 
perhaps  twenty  is  sufficient.  We  here  name  30  standai*d 
varieties,  all  of  which  are  now  in  successful  cultivation  in 
diflferent  parts  of  the  United  States  and  the  Canadas.  The 
names  and  descriptions  are  those  of  Downing,  as  published 
in  his  late  work  on  the  Fruit  Trees  of  America,  1845. 

Summer  Apples. — Early  Harvest,  Red  Astracan,  Large 
Yellow  Bough,  Williams'  Favorite. 

Autumn  Apples. — Golden  Sweet,  Fall  Pippin,  Gravenstein, 
Jersey  Sweeting,  Pumpkin  Russet,  (by  some,  the  Belle- 
bonne,)  Rambo. 

Winter  Apples. — Westfield  Seek-no-farther,  Baldwin,. 
Black  Apple,  Yellow  Belle  fleur,  Detroit,  Hubbardston  None- 
such, Green  and  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  Northern  Spy, 
Blue  Pearmain,  Peck's  Pleasant,  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
American  Golden  Russet,  English  Russet,  Roxbury  Russet,. 
Swaar,  Ladies'  Sweeting,  Talman's  Sweeting,  Esopus  Spit- 
zenberg.  Waxen  Apple,  Wine  Apple. 

THE  PEAR. 

The  pear  is  the  most  valuable  and  one  of  the  most  luscious 
and  wholesome  market  fruits,  though  not  comparable  to  the 


FEUITS.  169 

apple  for  variety  and  general  use.  In  a  good  soil  and  under 
proper  cultivation,  it  is  both  vigorous  and  hardy.  It  is  bud- 
ded and  grafted  like  the  apple,  and  requires  the  same  treat- 
ment ;  it  is  as  easy  of  propagation,  attains  a  greater  size  and 
age,  and  although  longer  arriving  to  maturity,  it  is  a  more 
abundant  bearer.  Its  favorite  soil  is  a  cla}'  loam.  It  needs 
little  pruning  as  it  usually  throws  out  an  upright,  graceful 
head,  free  from  excessive  bushiness.  The  trees  may  be 
planted  25  or  30  feet  apart,  an  abundance  of  sun  being  re- 
quisite to  full  bearing  and  the  perfection  of  the  fruit. 

Diseases. — ^I'he  pear  is  seldom  subject  to  more  than  one 
formidable  disease,  the  fire  blight,  and  to  this  some  localities 
are  more  subject  than  others.  The  disease  manifests  itself 
generally  in  mid-summer,  in  the  sudden  withering  of  the 
leaves  on  one  or  more  branches.  The  only  effectual  reme- 
dy is  to  cut  off  and  burn  the  diseased  limb  immediately  on  its 
discovery.  The  causes  are  imperfectly  known,  but  it  has 
been  variously  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  minute  insects,  to 
the  abundant  flow  of  sap  and  to  the  severity  of  the  winter. 

Collecting  and  preserving  the  fruit. — The  pears  in- 
tended for  market  or  for  long  keeping,  should  be  hand-picked 
and  laid  in  a  cool  place  ;  and  when  perfectly  dry  put  up  in 
casks  like  apples.  Winter  pears  should  be  packed  for  pre- 
servation like  winter  apples. 

The  varieties  to  be  selected  depends  entirely  on  the  ob- 
ject  of  their  cultivation.  For  market  the  best  and  most  pop- 
ular kinds  only  should  be  chosen,  and  for  family  use,  an 
equally  good  selection  should  be  made  of  those  running 
throughout  the  entire  season. 

We  name  in  their  order  of  ripening,  a  dozen  choice  kinds, 
the  cultivation  of  which  has  thus  far  been  thoroughly  success- 
ful and  the  qualities  universally  approved.  The  most  of 
these  are  pears  of  American  origin,  which  are  to  be  prefer- 
red as  promising  more  durability,  hardiness  and  perfect  adap- 
tation to  our  climate  and  soils.     We  quote  Downing. 

Summer  and  Early  Autumn  Pears. — Bloodgood,  Dear- 
born's Seedling,  Bartlett  or  Williams'  Bon  Chretien,  Stevens' 
Genesee. 

Autumn  Pears, — Beurre  Diel,  Dix,  White  Doyenne  or  Vir- 
galieu,  Duchess  D'Angouleme. 

Wintjer  Pears. — Beurre  D'Aramberg,  Columbi&,  Winter 
Nelis,  Prince's  St.  Germain. 
G 


170 


AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 


THE    QUINCE. 

This  is  also  a  valuable  market  fruit.  It  makes  a  richy 
highly  flavored  sweetmeat,  and  to  this  use  it  is  entirely- 
limited.  The  tree  is  easily  raised  by  suckers  and  the 
cuttings,  and  should  be  planted  fifteen  feet  apart,  in  a  rich, 
warm,  heavy  soil,  (a  clayey  loam  is  the  best,)  rather  moist, 
and  in  a  sunny  exposure  where  it  will  be  well  sheltered  from 
severe  and  cold  winds.  The  wash  of  a  barnyard  is  its  best 
manure,  and  it  repays  equally  with  tne  apple,  for  good  cul- 
tivation. The  fruit  is  large,  sometimes  weighing  a  pound, 
of  a  rich  yellow  color,  and  generally  free  from  worms  and 
other  imperfections.  It  ripens  in  October  and  November^ 
The  orange  quince  is  the  best  variety  for  common  cultiva- 
tion. The  tree  requires  but  little  pruning.  The'tinmk  may 
be  entire  for  two  or  three  feet,  or  brrmch  from  t^ie  ground- 
by  two  or  more  stems.  The  top  should  be  kept  open  ti9' 
admit  the  sun  and  air,  and  the  trunk  freed  from  suck«ci&-  So* 
treated  it  will  live  long  and  produce  abundantly. 

THE    CHERRY. 

Aside  from  the  value  of  its  fruit,  the  cherry  is  an  orna- 
mental shnde  tree,  hardy  and  vigorous  in  its  growth,  and! 
easy  of  propagation.  It  should  be  planted  like  the  apple.. 
For  culinary  purposes,  the  common  red  cherry  is  perhaps 
the  best.  This  may  stand  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  aipart, 
according  to  soil  and  situation.  The  large  Mazard  or  the* 
English  cherry  requires  more  room,  and  if  on  a  deep,  warm,, 
sandy  loam,  itsfavoiite  soil,  it  should  be  planted  two  rods-, 
apart,  as  it  grows  to  a  large  size.  It  will  flourish  luxuri- 
antly on  a  clay  loam,  or  on  an  open  gravel,  provided-  the 
soil  be  rinh  and  deep  ;  but  on  these,  it  demands  more  careful^ 
cultivation.  It  seldom  requires  much  pruning.  Care  must 
be  UFcd  with  this  as  with  all  other  fruit  trees,  to  give  it  an 
Ojien  head  and  to  keep  the  limbs  from  crossing  and  chafing 
each  other.  The  varieties  most  in  use  are  the  Common  Red 
Kentish  or  Pie  Cherry^  with  which  every  one  is  familiar,  the 
English  Mayduke^  Black  Tartarian.  Bigarreau^  (Graflion  or 
Yellow  Span  sh,)  the  large  Red  Bigarreau,  Elton,  Belle  de 
Choisy  and  the  laie  Dnlce.  These  will  form  a  succession  of  six^ 
weeks  in  ripening  and  embrace  the  entire  cherry  season. 
The  cherry  is  remarkably  free  from  disease  and  it  usually 
requires  but  ordinary  care  in  its  cultivation. 


FRUITS.  171 


THE    PLUM. 


In  its  superior  varieties,  this  is  a  delicious  fruit,  and  is  gen- 
erally easily  cultivated.  It  prefers  a  strong  clay  loam,  but 
does  well  in  any  ordinary  ground  except  a  light  sand.  It 
should  be  planted  like  the  apple,  though  on  a  smaller  scale, 
as  it  has  a  smaller  and  less  vigorous  growth.  The  proper 
distance  is  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  apart.  There  are  two  for- 
midable impediments  in  the  cultivation  of  the  plum.  One 
is  an  insect,  which  attacks  the  wood,  and  deposits  its  egg  in 
the  s  nailer  branches.  This  is  followed  by  a  large  swelling 
or  excrescence  and  if  suftered  to  remain,  will  soon  destroy 
its  jMoductivness.  The  best  and  surest  remedy  is  to  cut  off 
the  branch  at  once  and  burn  it.  The  Curadio  commits  its 
depredations  on  the  young  fruit  soon  after  the  blossoms  dis- 
appear. These  are  frequently  so  destructive  as  to  kill  the 
t>uit  of  an  entire  orchard.  Several  methods  of  destroying 
them  have  been  suggested  of  which  the  most  simple  and 
effectual  is,  to  plant  the  trees  in  such  places  as  will  admit  the 
swine  and  poultry  to  feed  upon  the  fallen  fruit  and  insects. 
Salt  sprinkled  around  the  tree  in  the  spring  is  said  to  destroy 
fhem.  The  smoke  of  rotten  wood,  leaves  and  rubbish  which 
have  been  burned  under  the  trees  when  in  blossom  has 
sometimes  proved  beneficial.  Paving  the  earth  under  the 
Jimbs  to  prevent  the  burrowing  of  the  insects,  and  some 
other  remedies  are  recommended.  This  is  a  serious  evil, 
requiring  more  observation  and  experiment  than  it  has  yet  re- 
ceived. 

Varieties. — The  common  blue  or  horse  plum  is  cultiva- 
ted in  numerous  sub-varieties.  Some  of  these  are  very  good, 
others  utterly  worthless.  Good  plums  are  as  easily  raised 
as  poor  ones.  Young  trees  bearing  an  indifferent  fruit,  can 
be  headed  down  and  gratled  as  readily  as  apples,  but  this  re- 
q  lires  to  be  done  a  month  earlier  in  the  spring  and  before  the 
buds  begin  to  swell.  The  best  kinds  are  the  Yellow,  Green, 
Autumn,  Bleeckers,  Imperial,  Prince's  Yellow,  Frost,  Purple, 
and  the  Red  Gages  ;  Coe's  Golden  Drop,  the  Jefferson,  the 
Grange,  the  Washington,  the  Columbia,  Smith's  Orleans, 
and  the  Ucd  Magnum  Bonum. 

This  last  variety  is  more  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  circu- 
lio  than  many  others.  But  its  vigorous  growth,  great  pro- 
ductivness  when  not  attacked  and  its  excellent  quality  for 
the  table  renders  it  a  desirable  fruit.  For  drying,  the  Ger- 
man  prune  is  perhaps  the  best,  although  several  of  the  plums 


178  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

above  named  answer  an  excellent  purpose.  We  have  enume- 
rated a  larger  variety  of  plums  from  the  difficulty  in  our 
northern  climates  generally,  of  cultivating  the  peach,  which 
ripens  nearly  at  the  same  time,  and  although  not  so  delicious 
a  fruit,  the  plum  is  a  valuable  substitute  for  it.  It  is  a  more 
durable  tree  though  liable  to  several  diseases,  and  its  cultiva- 
tion is  comparatively  easy. 

THE   PEACH. 

This  fruit  on  virgin  soils  and  in  the  early  settlement  of  our 
country,  was  one  of  tiie  easiest  of  propagation  and  most  abund- 
ant in  its  bearing,  but  it  is  now  the  most  uncertain  in  its  ma- 
turity and  the  shortest  lived  of  all.  So  liable  is  it  to  casual- 
ties as  to  have  become  almost  entirely  discarded  in  large 
sections  of  the  United  States,  where  it  once  flourished  in  the 
highest  perfection.  It  is  now  generally  reared  on  an  extensive 
scale  for  market  by  those  who  make  it  an  exclusive  business. 

Its  FAVORITE  SOIL  is  a  light,  warm,  sandy  or  gravelly 
loam,  in  a  sunny  exposure,  protected  from  severe  bleak  winds. 
Thus  situated  and  in  favorable  latitudes,  it  often  flourishes  in 
luxuriance  and  produces  the  most  luscious  fruit.  In  Western 
New-York  and  on  most  of  the  Southern  borders  of  the  great 
Lakes  the  peach  grows  more  vigorously  and  lives  longer  than 
in  any  other  sections  of  the  United  States,  frequently  lasting 
20  or  30  years,  and  bearing  constantly  and  in  abundance.-^ 
Peaches  are  produced  in  immense  quantities  in  the  States  of 
New  Jersey  and  Delaware,  on  the  light  soils  near  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  for  the  large  city  nmrket?,  and  in  those  states  the 
crop  of  a  single  propriettn*  often  amounts  to  $5000,  and 
sometimes  exceeds  $20,000  annually.  None  but  the  choi- 
cest  kinds  are  cultivated,  and  these  are  inoculated  into  the 
seedling  when  a  year  old.  They  are  transplanted  at  two  and 
three,  and  are  worn  out,  cut  down  and  burned  at  the  age  of 
from  six  to  twelve  years.  The  proper  distance  at  which  they 
should  be  planted  is  sixteen  to  tw(^nty  feet  apart,  according  to 
situation,  soil  and  exj.OL-ure.  Constant  cultivation  of  the 
ground  is  necessary  tor  their  best  growth  and  bearing. 

Diseases. — It  is  liable  to  many  diseases  and  (o  the  depre- 
dations of  numerous  enemies.  The  Yellows  is  its  most  fatal 
disease,  and  this  can  only  ]>e  checked  by  the  immediate  remo- 
val of  the  diseased  tree  from  the  orchard.  Of  tlie  Insects,  the 
grub  or  peach  worm  is  the  most  destructive.  It  punctures 
the  bark,  and  lays  its  egg  beneath  it  at  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  when  discovered  it  should  be  killed  with  a  pen- 


rRuiTs.  173 

knife  or  pointed  wire.  A  good  preventive  is  to  form  a  cone 
of  earth  a  foot  high  around  the  trunk  about  the  first  of  June  ; 
or  if  made  of  leached  ashes  it  would  be  better.  Remove  this 
heap  in  Octol)er,  and  the  bark  will  harden  below  the  reach  of 
the  fly  the  following  year. 

Varieties. — The  best  kinds  in  succession  from  early  to 
late,  are  the  Red  and  Yellow  Rareripes,  Malacatune,  Early 
York,  Early  Tillotson,  George  the  Fourth,  Morris'  Red  and 
White  Rareripes,  Malta  and  Royal  George.  These  succeed 
each  other  from  August  to  October. 

The  Apricot  and  Nectarine. — These  are  of  the  peach 
family,  but  generally  inferior  as  a  fruit  and  much  more  diffi- 
cult of  cultivation,  being  more  liable  to  casualties  and  insects. 
They  require  the  same  kinds  of  soil  and  cultivation  as  the 
peach  with  a  warm  exposure.  As  they  are  propagated  solely 
as  an  article  of  luxury  and  are  not  wanted  for  general  use, 
we  omit  further  notice  of  them. 

THE    GRAPE. 

The  details  for  the  proper  rearing  of  this  fruit  demand  a 
volume,  but  we  can  only  refer  to  some  prominent  points  in  its 
cultivation.  It  grows  wild  in  abundance  and  of  tolerable 
quality  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  climbing  over 
trees,  rocks  and  fences  in  great  luxuriance.  We  have  seen 
in  the  Eastern  States  a  dozen  excellent  native  varieties  of 
white,  black  and  purple,  of  different  sizes,  shapes  and  flavor, 
growing  within  the  space  of  a  single  furlong.  So  abundant 
were  the  clustering  vines  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in  the  vicinity 
of  NaiTaganset  Bay,  that  the  old  Northmen  who  discovered, 
and  for  a  short  time  occupied  the  country  in  the  r2th  century, 
gave  it  the  appropriate  name  of  Vinland,  or  the  Land  of  Vines. 
The  finer  kinds  require  loose,  shelly  soils  with  warm,  sunny 
exposures  and  proper  trimming.  Thus  cultivated  they  are 
often  raised  with  profit.  The  more  choice  and  delicate  kinds 
must  have  protection  in  winter  and  glass  heat  in  summer,  and 
are  therefore  better  suited  to  large  towns,  or  to  a  well  arran- 
ged conservatory. 

Varieties. — The  best  American  kinds  are  the  Isabella 
and  Catawba,  for  the  Middle,  and  the  Scuppernong  for  the 
Southern  States.  North  of  latitude  41°  30'  neither  of  the 
two  former  ripen  certainly  except  in  long,  warm  seasons,  and 
it  would  be  better  for  the  cultivator  north  of  this  to  select  some 
of  the  hardiest  and  best  wild  grapes  of  his  own  latitude  for 
out-door    propagation.      Grafting    a   foreign    variety  on    a 


174  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

hardy  native  stock  has  been  found  to  give  a  choice  fruit  in 
great  abundance,  and  with  more  certainty  than  could  be  se- 
cured by  an  entire  exotic.  Of  the  European,  the  varieties  of 
Chasselas,  Black  Hamburgh,  and  White  Muscat  of  Alexan- 
dria, are  the  best.  In  a  good  grapery  and  with  artificial  heat 
and  proper  attention,  these  can  undoubtedly  be  raised  at  a 
price  which  would  yield  to  the  horticulturist  an  adequate  re- 
turn, and  for  this  purpose  they  are  the  best  kinds  to  propagate, 
furnishing  a  long  succession  of  fruit  in  its  finest  variety. 

THE    CURRANT 

Is  the  first  in  importance  of  the  small  garden  fruits.  In 
cookery  it  has  many  valuable  uses  and  is  wholesome  and 
delicious  when  ripe.  It  grows  with  the  greatest  certainty 
and  luxuriance  either  from  the  suckers  or  cuttings.  The 
ground  should  be  rich  and  well  worked  and  the  bushes  set  at 
least  six  feet  apart.  They  require  plenty  of  sun  and  air  like 
all  other  fruits.  The  Red  is  the  most  common  kind,  but  the 
large  Dutch  White  is  sweeter  and  more  delicious,  a  great 
bearer,  larger,  and  as  easily  cultivated.  The  English  Black 
is  very  productive,  of  great  size,  and  makes  a  fine  jelly.  It 
has  peculiar  efficacy  in  sickness.  The  usual  mode  of  plant- 
ing  currants  near  fences  is  objectionable.  They  should  stand 
out  whore  the  gardener  can  get  around  them  and  where  the 
fruit  can  have  plenty  of  air  and  sun.  This  improves  the 
fruit,  and  insects  and  vermin  are  more  eftectually  prevented 
from  harboring  beneath  the  bushes. 

THE    GOOSEBERRY. 

This  makes  a  palatable  tart  and  as  a  ripe  fruit  possesses 
some  excellence.  It  is  easily  raised,  and  prefers  a  cool, 
moist,  rich  soil  in  a  sheltered  position.  It  has  been  brought 
to  the  highest  perfection  in  Lancashire,  England,  and  in  Scot- 
Is^ijd,  under  the  influence  of  their  cool  weather  and  intermina- 
ble fogs  and  rains.  Ifhas  long  been  cultivated  in  America, 
but  with  little  success ;  for  though  frequently  abundant,  the 
flavor  is  indifferent  in  comparison  with  American  fruits  gen- 
erally. For  those  who  design  to  cultivate  them,  the  nursery 
catalogues  are  a  sufficient  reference.  As  a  tart  they  are  infey 
rior  to  the  rJiubarb,  or  pie-plant,  which  can  be  grown  with 
little  trouble  or  expense,  in  great  profusion  in  every  fertile 
and  well  tilled  garden ;  and  it  is  in  season  from  May  till 
August,  when  apples  are  sufficiently  advanced  to  take  its 
place. 


PRTJIT8.  175 

THE    RASPBERRY. 

Both  Red  and  Black  Raspberries  are  favorably  known  as 
a  wild  American  fruit.  As  market  fruit  near  the  large  cities, 
it  is  very  profitable.  It  prefers  a  light,  warm,  dry  soil,  rich 
and  thoroughly. loosened.  The  best  varieties  grown  are  the 
Red  and  Yellow  Antwerps,  which  prod\ice  abundantly  and 
are  offline  flavor ;  the  Franconia,  a  fine,  large,  purple  French 
fruit;  and  the  Fastolf,  a  late  English  Red  variety  of  superior 
size  and  flavor.  The  above  kinds  are  all  hardy  in  latitude 
43"  north.  They  are  propagated  by  suckers,  and  should  be 
planted  three  feet  apart  if  in  hills,  and  four  feet  if  in  rows. — 
The  stalk  lives  but  two  years.  The  first  season  it  shoots  up 
from  the  root  and  makes  its  growth.  The  next  Spring  it 
should  be  topped  to  three  feet  in  height,  the  old  stock  cut 
out,  and  the  bearing  ones  (which  ought  never  to  exceed  three 
or  four  in  a  clump)  should  be  securely  tied  to  a  stake  or 
trellis.     If  the  ground  be  well  hoed  they  will  bear  profusely. 

THE    STRAWBERRY. 

This  delicious  and  wholesome  fruit  is  rapidly  spreading  in 
garden  cultivation  throughout  the  United  Slates.  It  will 
flourish  in  almost  any  good  soil  which  is  not  too  cold  or  wet. 
The  plants  should  be  set  in  rows  two  ft^et  asunder  and  one 
foot  apart  in  the  rows,  kept  clear  from  weeds  and  the  runners 
cut  offence  or  twice  in  the  growing  season.  Beds  will  last 
from  three  to  six  years,  depending,  in  a  measure,  on  the  mode 
of  cultivation.  The  fruit  is  in  season  from  three  to  six  weeks, 
according  to  their  kinds.  Many  cultivators  have  found  diffi- 
culty in  procuring  an  abundant  supply  of  the  strawberry, 
which  is  probably  owing  (when  other  circumstances  are  fa- 
vorable,) to  an  improper  arrangement  of  the  male  and  female 
plants.  Hovey's  Seedling  and  several  others  demand  the 
presence  of  the  male  plant  from  some  other  variety,  to  fertilize 
them.  The  most  popular  for  the  market  are  sub-varieties  of 
the  Scarlet,  Pine,  Chili  and  Wood.  Among  these  the  Meth- 
ven  Castle,  Keene's  and  Hovey's  Seedlings  are  most  highly 
celebrated. 

THE  AMERICAN  CRANBERRY  (Oxycocus  macrocarpus) 

Yields  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  our  tart  esculents.  It 
is  found  in  great  abundance  in  many  low,  swampy  grounds 
in  our  northern  and  western  states  ;  and  although  it  has  been 
gathered  from  its  native  haunts  from  the  earliest  settlement 
of  the  country,  yet  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  it  has  be* 


176  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

come  an  object  of  cultivation.  Experience  has  probably  not 
yet  fully  developed  the  most  certain  means  of  attaining  the 
greatest  success,  but  enough  is  already  kno\vn,  to  assume 
that  they  are  a  profitable  object  of  attention  to  the  farmer. 

Soil  and  cultivation. — They  are  generally  planted  on 
low,  moist  meadows  which  are  prepared  by  thorough  plow- 
ing and  harrowing.  They  are  then  set  in  drills  by  slips  and 
roots,  usually  in  the  spring,  but  sometimes  in  autumn,  about 
20  inches  apart  and  at  distances  of  about  3  inches.  They 
require  to  have  the  weeds  kept  out  and  the  ground  stirred 
with  a  light  cultivator  or  hoe,  and  they  will  soon  overrun  and 
occupy  the  Avhole  ground.  An  occasional  top  dressing  of 
swamp  muck  is  beneficial.  Mr.  Bates  of  Massachusetts  has 
in  this  way,  produced  at  the  rate  of  300  bushels  per  acre, 
which  were  worth  in  the  market  from  one  to  two  dollars  per 
bushel.  Capt  Hall  of  the  same  state,  raises  them  in  a  swamp, 
first  giving  it  a  top  dressing  of  sand  oi  gravel  to  kill  the  grass, 
when  he  dio;s  holes  4  feet  apart,  and  inserts  in  each  a  sod  of 
cranberry  plants  about  one  foot  square.  From  these  sods 
they  gradually  spread  till  the  whole  surface  is  occupied. 

The  cra.iberry  is  sometimes  killed  by  late  or  early  frosts, 
and  it  has  been  suggested,  that  these  might  be  avoided  by 
haying  the  fields  so  arranged  w^hen  they  may  be  expected  as 
to  be  slightly  covered  with  water.  The  cranberry  is  gather- 
ed when  sufficiently  ripe,  by  raking  them  from  the  bushes. 
They  are  cleaned  from  the  stems,  leaves  and  imperfect  ber- 
ries, by  washing  and  rolling  them  over  smooth  boaixis  set  on 
an  inclined  plane,  in  the  same  manner  as  imperfect  shot  are, 
assorted.  After  this  they  are  put  into  tight  casks  and  filled 
with  water.  If  stored  in  a  cool  place,  the  water  changed  at 
proper  intervals,  and  the  imperfect  berries  occasional!}''  thrown 
out,  they  wiU  keep  till  the  following  summer.  They  will  fre- 
quently bring  $20  per  barrel  in  European  markets.  The 
raking  is  beneficial  rather  than  otherwise  to  the  plants,  for 
though  some  of  the  plants  are  pulled  out  and  others  broken, 
their  places  are  more  than  supplied  by  the  subsequent  growth. 


BROOM    CORN.  177 


CHAPTER   XI 


MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTS  OF  CULTIVATION. 


BROOMCORN  (^Sorghum  saccharatum.) 

So  far  as  we  are  acquainted  with  its  history,  this  is  a  pro- 
duct peculiar  to  America.  In  its  early  growth  and  general 
appearance  it  resembles  Indian  corn.  It  stands  perfectly  up- 
right at  a  height  of  ten  feet  or  more,  with  a  stalk  of  nearly 
uniform  size  throughout,  from  which  an  occasional  leaf  ap- 
pears ;  and  at  the  top  a  long,  compact  bunch  of  slender,  gi  ace- 
ful  stems  is  thrown  out,  familiarly  termed  the  brush,  which 
sustain  the  st.ed  at  and  near  their  extremities. 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  raising  broom  corn,  is  simikr  to 
that  required  for  Indian  corn  or  maize.  It  should  be  rich, 
warm,  loamy  land,  not  liable  to  early  or  late  frosts.  Spring 
frosts  injure  broom  corn  more  than  maize,  as  the  roots  do 
not  strike  so  deep,  nor  has  it  the  power  of  recovering  from 
the  effects  of  frost  equal  to  the  latter.  The  best  crops  are  usu- 
ally raised  on  a  green  sward,  turned  over  as  late  as  possible 
in  the  fall,  so  as  to  kill  the  worms.  Clay  lands  are  not 
suitable  for  it. 

Manure. — Hog  or  sheep  manure  is  best,  and  rotten  bet- 
ter than  unfermented.  If  the  land  is  in  good  condition,  three 
cords,  or  eight  loads  to  the  acre  is  sufficient.  This  is  usually 
placed  in  hills  and  12  to  15  bushels  of  ashes  per  acre  may  be 
added  with  great  advantage.  Plaster  is  beneficial  at  the  rate 
of  two  to  four  bushels  per  acre.  The  addition  of  slacked 
lime  helps  the  ground,  affords  food  to  the  crop,  and  is  des- 
tructive to  worms.  Poudrette  at  the  rate  of  a  gill  or  so  to 
each  hill  at  planting,  or  guano  at  the  rate  of  a  table-spoonful 
per  hill,  if  the  African,  or  two-thirds  the  quantity  if  Peruvian, 
mixed  into  a  compost  with  ten  times  its  quantity  of  good  ioil, 
is  an  excellent  application,  especially  if  the  land  is  not  in 


178  AMERICAN    AGRICtJLTtTRE. 

very  good  heart.  To  repeat  either  of  the  above  around  the 
stalks  on  each  hill  after  the  last  hoeing,  Avill  add  materially  to 
the  crop. 

Planting. — It  should  be  planted  in  hills  two  feet  apart,  in 
rows  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  distant.  If  the  seed  is  good, 
15  to  20  seeds  to  a  hill  are  enough  ;  if  not,  put  in  sufficient 
to  ensure  eight  or  ten  thrifty  plants,  which  are  all  that  re- 
quire to  be  left  for  each  hill.  Time  of  planting  must  depend 
on  climate  and  season.  The  1st  of  May  is  time  for  planting 
in  latitude  40°,  and  10th  to  15th  in  42°,  but  as  early  as  possi- 
ble, yet  late  enough  to  escape  spring  frost  is  best.  The  ground 
should  be  thoroughly  harrowed  and  pulverized  before  plant- 
ing. Thick  planting  gives  the  finest,  toughest  brush.  Seed 
should  be  buried  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  deep. 

After  Culture. — As  soon  as  the  plants  are  visible,  run 
a  cultivator  between  the  rows,  and  follow  with  a  hand  hoe. 
Many  neglect  this  till  the  weeds  get  a  start,  which  is  highly 
prejudicial  to  the  crop.  The  cultivator  or  a  light  plow  should 
be  used  afterwards,  follow^ed  with  a  hoe,  and  may  be  repeated 
four  or  five  times  with  advantage.  Breaking  the  tops  should 
be  done  before  fully  ripe,  or  when  the  seed  is  a  little  past  the 
milk  ;  or  if  frost  appears,  then  immediately  after  it.  This  is 
done  by  bending  over  the  tops  of  the  rows  towards  each  other, 
for  the  convenience  of  cutting  afterwards.  They  should  be 
broken  some  13  inches  below  the  brush,  and  allowed  to 
hang  till  fully  ripe,  when  it  may  be  cut  and  carried  under 
cover,  and  spread  till  thoroughly  dried.  The  stalks  remain- 
ing on  the  ground  may  be  cut  close  or  pulled  up  and  buried 
in  the  fuiTows  for  manure,  or  burnt,  and  thus  be  restored 
to  the  earth  to  enrich  it ;  or  they  may  be  can-ied  to  the 
barn-yard  to  mix  in  a  compost,  or  with  the  droppings  of  the 
cattle. 

Cleaning  the  Brush. — This  is  best  done  by  hand,  by 
pj^sing  it  through  a  kind  of  hetchel,  made  by  setting  upright 
knives  near  enough  together,  or  it  may  be  cleaned  by  a  long 
toothed  currycomb.  By  the  first  method  none  of  the  little 
branches  are  broken,  and  the  brush  makes  a  finer,  better 
broom.  We  have  seen  horse  power  machines  used  for  clean- 
ing the  seed  ^vith  great  rapidity,  in  the  Miami  valley.  The 
average  yield  is  about  500  lbs.  of  brush  per  acre.  It  varies  • 
according  to  season  and  soil,  from  800  to  1,000  lbs.  The 
price  also  varies  materially,  ranging  from  3  to  16  cents  per 
lb. ;  the  last  seldom  obtained  unless  in  extreme  scarcity.  A 
good  crop  of  seed  is  obtained  in  the  Connecticut  valley  about 


FtAX.  l79 

two  years  out  of  iive.  When  well  matured,  the  seed  will 
average  3  to  5  lbs.  for  every  pound  of  the  brush.  A  single 
acre  has  produced  150  bushels  seed,  though  25  to  50  is  a 
more  common  yield.  It  weighs  about  50  lbs.  per  bushel, 
and  is  usually  sold  at  25  to  35  cents. 

The  uses  of  broom  corn  are  limited  to  the  manufacture 
of  brooms  from  the  brush  and  the  consumption  of  the  seed 
when  ground  and  mixed  with  other  grain,  in  feeding  to  fat- 
tening or  working  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  and  occasionally 
to  horses.  Brooms  manufactured  from  it,  have  superseded 
every  other  kind  for  general  use  in  the  United  States,  and 
within  a  few  years  they  have  become  an  article  of  extensive 
export  to  England  and  other  countries.  The  brush  and  wood 
for  the  handles  are  imported  separately  to  avoid  high  duties, 
and  are  there  put  together,  and  form  a  profitable  branch  of 
agricultural  commerce  to  those  hitherto  engaged  in  the  traf- 
fic. The  cultivation  of  broom  corn  has,  till  quite  recently, 
been  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  north-eastem  states  ; 
but  it  is  now  largely  raised  in  the  western  states.  Their 
fresh,  rich  soil,  however,  does  not  in  general  yield  so  fine, 
tough  and  desirable  a  brush  as  that  grown  in  the  older  culti- 
vated soils. 

FLAX  (Linum  usilatissimum.) 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated  plants  of  which  we 
have  any  record  ;  and  its  habitat  or  region  of  naturalization, 
extends  from  the  torrid  to  the  frigid  zones.  Its  long  silken  fibres 
which  come  from  the  outer  coating  or  bark  of  the  stem,  has 
been  used  for  the  manufacture  of  linen,  from  time  immemo- 
rial. The  absolute  quantity  at  present  grown,  is  probably 
equal  to  that  of  any  preceeding  age  ;  but  relatively,  it  is  fall- 
ing behind  the  product  of  cotton,  which  is  rapidly  on  the  in- 
crease. Flax  is  still  a  profitable  crop,  for  in  addition  to  its  use 
as  a  material  for  clothing,  the  seed  is  of  great  value  for  its 
oi',  and  the  food  it  yields  to  cattle,  and  for  the  latter  purpose 
the  whole  plant  is  some  times  fed  with  decided  advantage. 

The  proper  Soil  for  flax,  is  a  good  alluvial  or  vegetable 
loam,  equally  removed  from  a  loose  sand  or  tenacious  clay. 
In  a  very  rich  soil  the  fibre  grow's  too  coarse,  and  on  a  hard 
soil,  the  crop  will  not  make  a  profitable  return.  Fresh  barn 
yard  manures  are  not  suited  to  it  and  they  should  in  all  cases 
where  necessary  for  a  proper  fertility,  be  added  to  the  pre- 
ceeding crop.  A  rich  sod  which  has  long  lain  in  pasture  or 
meadow,  w^ell  plowed  and  rotted,  is  the  best  for  it.     Lime  in 


180  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

small  quantities  may  be  given  to  the  soil,  but  the  Flemings 
who  raise  flax  extensively,  never  allow  it  to  follow  a  heavy 
liming,  till  seven  years  intervene,  as  they  consider  it  injures 
the  fibre.  A  good  wheat  is  generally  a  good  flax  soil.  Salt, 
ashes  and  gypsum  are  proper  manures  for  it ;  the  last  has  the 
greatest  effect  if  applied  after  the  plant  is  developed  and 
while  covered  with  dew  or  moisture  ;  all  the  saline  manures 
used  as  a  top-dressing  benefit  the  plant  and  check  the  rav- 
ages of  worms  which  frequently  attack  the  young  plants. 

Culture  on  a  finely  prepared  surface  either  of  fresh  sod, 
or  after  corn  or  roots  which  have  been  well  cleared,  sow 
broadcast,  from  sixteen  to  thirty  quarts  per  acre  if  wanted 
for  seed,  or  two  bushels  if  wanted  for  the  fibre.  When  thin 
it  branches  very  much,  and  every  sucker  or  branch  is  termi- 
nated by  a  boll  well  loaded  with  seed.  When  thickly  sown, 
the  stem  grows  single  and  without  branches  and  gives  a  long, 
fine  fibre.  If  the  soil  be  very  rich,  and  fibre  is  the  object  of 
cultivation,  it  may  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  per 
acre.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  seed,  the  heaviest  is 
the  best,  and  it  should  be  of  a  bright  brownish  cast  and  oily 
to  the  touch.  It  should  be  lightly  harrowed  or  brushed  in 
and  rolled.  When  three  or  four  inches  high,  it  may  be  care- 
fully weeded  by  hand,  and  for  this  it  is  best  to  employ  child- 
ren, or  if  adults  are  put  on  the  field  they  should  be  barefoot, 
and  any  depression  of  the  plants  by  the  feet  will  soon  be  re- 
covered by  the  subsequent  growth,  which  on  good  soil,  will  be 
sufficiently  rapid  to  prevent  the  weeds  again  interfering  with 
it.  Grass  seed  or  clover  may  be  sown  with  flax  without  any 
detriment  to  it. 

Harvesting. — When  it  is  designed  for  cambrics  and  the 
finest  linen,  flax  is  pulled  when  flowering  ;  but  in  this  country 
it  is  seldom  harvested  for  the  fibre  till  the  seed  is  entirely 
formed,  and  although  not  ripe,  most  of  it  will  mature  if  pulled, 
while  the  fibre  is  in  its  full  strength.  If  required  for  seed, 
it  should  be  lofl  standing  till  the  first  seeds  are  well  ripened. 
It  Fs  then  gathered  and  l)ound  in  small  bundles,  and  when 
properly  dried  is  placed  under  cover.  If  it  falls  before  ripen- 
ing, it  should  be  pulled  at  once,  whatever  be  its  stage  of 
growth;  as  it  is  the  only  means  of  saving  it. 

After  Management. — The  usual  method  of  preparing 
flax  in  this  country  after  removing  the  seed  by  drawing  the 
heads  through  a  comb  or  rake  of  finely  set  teeth,  called  rip- 
pling, is  by  dew-rotting,  or  spreading  it  thinly  on  a  clean 
sward,  and  turning  it  occasionally  till  properly  rotted,  after 


HEMP.  181 

which  it  is  put  into  bundles  and  stored  till  a  convenient 
period  for  cleaning  it.  This  is  a  wasteful  practice  and  gives 
an  inferior  quality  of  fibre.  The  best  plan  of  preparing  it 
is  by  water-rotting,  which  is  done  in  vats  or  small  ponds  of 
sort  w^ater,  similar  to  those  used  for  hemp.  This  gives  a 
strong,  even,  riiky  fibre  and  without  waste,  and  worth  much 
more  either  for  sale  or  for  manufacturing  than  the  dew- 
rotted.  Various  steeps  for  macerating,  and  machines  for  pre- 
paring it  have  been  used,  which  materially  increases  its 
marketable  value.  The  fibre  is  generally  got  out  on  the 
brake  by  hand,  when  the  farmer  is  most  at  leisure.  A  crop 
of  the  fibre  may  be  estimated  at  300  to  1000  lbs.;  and  of 
seed,  from  15  to  30  bushels  per  acre. 

There  are  no  varieties  worthy  of  particular  notice,  for 
ordinary  cultivation.  Great  benefit  is  found  to  result  from  a 
frequent  change  of  seed,  to  soils  and  situations  dif!ering  from 
those  where  it  has  been  raised.  The  seed  is  always  valua- 
ble for  the  linseed  oil  it  yields,  and  the  residuum  or  oil  cake 
stands  deservedly  high  as  a  feed  for  all  animals ;  and  the 
entire  seed  when  boiled,  is  among  the  most  fattening  sub- 
stances which  the  farmer  can  use  for  animal  food.  Flax,  like 
most  other  plants  grown  for  seed,  is  an  exhausting  crop,  but 
when  pulled  or  harvested  before  the  seed  matures,  it  is  not. 
The  Flemings  think  flax  ought  not  to  be  raised  on  thesame 
soil  oftener  than  once  in  eight  j-ears. 

HEMP  {cannashis  sativa) 

Is  suited  to  large  portions  of  our  western  soils  and  climate, 
and  for  many  years,  it  has  been  a  conspicuous  object  of 
agricultural  attention.  We  have  not  yet  brought  the  supply 
to  our  full  consumption  of  it  in  its  various  manufactured 
forms,  as  we  have  till  recently  imported  several  millions  an- 
nually. But  the  increased  attention  and  skill  bestowed  on  its 
cultivation,  combined  with  our  means  for  its  indefinite  pro- 
duction, will  doubtless  ere  long  constitute  us  one  of  the  lar- 
gest of  the  hemp-exporting  countries. 

The  Soil  for  hemp  may  be  similar  to  that  for  flax,  but 
with  a  much  wider  range  from  a  uniform  standard,  for  it  will 
thrive  in  moderately  tenacious  clay,  if  rich,  drained,  and  well 
pulverized ;  and  it  will  do  equally  well  on  reclaimed  muck 
beds  when  properly  treated.  New  land  is  not  suited  to  it 
till  after  two  or  three  years  of  cultivation.  A  grass  sod  or 
clover  bed  is  best  adapted  to  it  when  plowed  in  the  fall  or  early 
in  winter.     This  secures  thorough  pulverization  by  frost  and 


182  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUKE. 

the  destruction  of  insects,  and  especially  the  cut  worm,  which 
is  very  injurious  to  it.  It  should  be  re-plowed  in  the  spring,if 
not  already  sufficiently  mellow,  as  a  fine  tilth,  considerable 
depth  and  great  fertility  are  essential  to  its  vigor. 

Cultivation. — Early  sowing  produces  the  best  crop,  yet 
it  should  not  be  put  in  so  early  as  to  be  exposed  to  severe  frost; 
and  where  there  is  a  large  quantity  planted,  convenience  in 
harvesting  requires  that  it  should  ripen  at  sufficient  intervals. 
The  farmer  may  select  his  time  for  sowing,  according  to  his 
latitude,  and  the  quantity  cultivated.  From  the  10th  of  April 
to  10th  June  is  the  fullest  range  allowed.  The  choice  of 
seed  is  material,  as  it  is  important  to  have  a  full  set  of  plants 
on  the  ground ;  yet  an  excess  is  injurious,  as  a  part  are  ne- 
cessarily smothered  after  absorbing  the  strength  of  the  soil, 
and  th(^y  are  besides  in  the  way  of  the  harvesting,  without 
contributing  any  thing  to  the  value  of  the  crop.  Seed  of 
the  last  year's  growth  is  best,  as  it  generally  heats  by  being 
kept  over,  which  can  be  avoided  only  by  spreading  thin. 
From  four  to  six  pecks  per  acre  of  good  seed,  is  sufficient. 
The  best  is  indicated  by  its  weight  and  bright  reddish  color. 
It  is  usual  to  sow  broadcast,  and  harrow  in  lightly  both  ways, 
and  roll  it.  A  smooth  surface  is  material  in  facilitating  the 
cutting.  Sowing  in  drills,  would  require  less  seed,  give  an 
equal  amount  of  crop,  and  materially  expedite  the  planting. 
This  should  always  l)e  done  before  moist  weather  if  possible, 
as  rapid  and  uniform  germination  of  the  seed  is  thus  more  cer- 
tainly  secured.  If  the  soil  be  very  dry,  it  is  better  to  place 
the  seed  deeper  in  the  ground,  which  can  be  done  with  the 
shovel  plow.  If  sown  in  drills  and  well  covered,  it  might  be 
previously  soaked  so  as  to  secure  early  germination  iji  the 
absence  of  rains. 

Cutting. — "  No  after  cultivation  is  necessary,  and  as 
soon  as  the  blossoms  turn  a  little  yellow,  and  begin  to  drop 
their  leaves,  which  usually  happens  3  to  n  1-2  months  after 
sotwng,  it  is  time  to  cut  the  hemp ;  if  it  stands,  however,  a 
week  or  ten  days  longer  than  this,  no  other  detriment  will  en- 
sue  except  that  it  Avill  not  rot  so  evejily,  and  becomes  more 
laborious  to  break.  Cutting  is  now  almost  universally  prac- 
ticed in  preference  to  pulling.  Not  quite  so  much  lint  is  saved 
by  the  first  as  by  the  last  process,  but  the  labor  is  pleasanter,  ' 
and  all  subsequent  operations,  such  as  spreading  out,  stacking 
and  rotting,  are  made  easier.  The  lint  also  is  of  a  better 
color  and  finer  fibre,  and  the  roots  and  stubble  left  in  the 
ground  and  plowed  under,  tend  to  lighten  the  soil,  and  as 


HBMP.  183 

they  decompose,  become  an  equivalent  to  a  light  dressing  of 
manure.  If  the  hemp  is  not  above  seven  feet  high,  it  can 
be  cut  with  cradle-scythes,  similar  to  those  used  for  wheat, 
(only  larger  and  stronger,)  at  the  rate  of  an  acre  per  day ; 
but  if  above  this  height,  hooks  must  be  used  full  three  inches 
wide,  of  a  corresponding  thickness,  and  about  two  and  a  half 
feet  long,  something  in  the  shape  of  a  brush  scythe  or  sickle, 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  long  and  nearly  straight  snath,  and 
with  these  half  an  acre  is  considered  a  good  day's  work. 

Drying  and  securing. — As  fast  as  cut,  spread  the  hemp 
on  the  ground  where  it  was  grown,  taking  care  to  keep  the 
butts  even,  when  if  the  weather  be  dry  and  warm,  it  will  be 
cured  in  three  days.  As  soon  as  sufficiently  dried,  commence 
binding  into  convenient  sheaves,  and  if  destined  for  water 
rotting,  it  ought  to  be  transported  to  dry  ground  convenient  to 
the  pools,  and  then  secured  in  round  stacks,  carefully  thatch- 
ed on  the  top  to  keep  out  the  rain  ;  but  if  designed  for  dew 
rotting,  it  should  be  secured  in  the  same  field  where  grown 
in  large  ricks.  The  reason  why  these  are  to  be  prefered  is, 
that  less  of  the  hemp  in  them  is  exposed  to  the  weather,  and 
of  course  the  more  and  better  the  lint  when  it  comes  to  be 
rotted  and  broken  out. 

The  Ricks  should  be  30  to  40  feet  long,  and  15  to  20  feet 
wide,  the  best  foundation  for  which  is  large  rails  or  logs  laid 
down  for  the  bottom  course,  six  feet  from  each  other,  then  lay 
across  these,  rails  or  poles  one  foot  apart.  As  the  hemp  is 
bound  in  sheaves,  let  it  be  thrown  into  two  rows,  with  suffi- 
cient space  for  a  wagon  to  pass  between.  *  While  the  pro- 
cess of  taking  up  and  binding  is  going  on,  a  wagon  and  three 
hands,  two  to  pitch  and  one  to  load,  is  engaged  in  hauling 
the  hemp  to  the  rick,  and  stacking  it.  The  rick  should  be 
in  a  central  part  so  as  to  require  the  hemp  to  be  removed  as 
short  a  distance  as  possible.  Thus  the  process  of  taking  up, 
binding,  hauling,  and  ricking,  all  progress  together.  In  this 
way  five  hands  will  put  up  a  stout  rick  in  two  days  and 
cover  it.  By  having  two  wagons  and  ten  hands,  it  may  be 
accomplished  in  one  day.  It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  for 
making  the  roof  of  the  rick,  it  is  necessary  to  have  long  hemp, 
from  which  the  leaves  should  be  beat  offi  In  this  state  only 
will  hemp  make  a  secure  roof.^ — {Beatty.) 

In  laying  down  the  hemp  begin  with  the  top  ends  of  the 
bundle  inside,  and  if  they  do  not  fill  up  fast  enough  to  keep 
the  inside  of  the  rick  level,  add  as  occasion  may  require 
whole  bundles.   Give  it  a  rounded  elliptical  form  at  each  end, 


1S4  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

and  as  it  rises  it  must  be  widened  so  as  to  make  the  top 
courses  shelter  the  bottom  ones,  and  after  getting  up  about 
twelve  feet  high,  then  commence  for  the  roof,  by  laying  the 
bundles  crosswise,  within  a  foot  of  the  edges  of  the  rick, 
building  the  top  up  roof-shaped,  of  a  slope  at  an  angle  of 
about  forty-five  degrees.  This  finished,  for  the  covering  of 
the  roof  lay  up  the  bundles  at  right  angles  to  its  length,  the 
butt  ends  down,  and  the  first  course  resting  on  the  rim  of  the 
rick  as  left  all  around,  one  foot  in  width.  Lap  the  bundles  in 
covering  the  roof  in  courses,  precisely  as  if  shingling  a  house. 
The  first  shingling  thus  finished,  commence  the  second  by  re- 
versing the  bundles,  placing  the  top  ends  down,  and  then  go 
on  lapping  them  as  before.  The  third  course  of  shingling 
begin  with  the  butt  ends  down  again,  letting  the  first  course 
hang  at  least  one  foot  below  the  edge  of  the  roof,  as  eaves  to 
shed  off  the  rain  well  from  the  body  of  the  stack.  Unbind 
the  bundles,  and  lay  the  covering  at  least  one  foot  thick  with 
the  loose  hemp,  lapping  well  shingle  fashion  as  before,  and 
for  a  weather  board,  let  the  top  course  come  up  above  the 
peak  of  the  roof  about  three  feet,  and  be  then  bent  over  it, 
towards  that  point  of  the  compass  from  which  the  wind  blows 
least.  If  the  work  has  been  faithfully  performed,  the  rick 
may  be  considered  as  finished,  and  weather  proof,  and  it  re- 
quires no  binding  with  poles  or  anything  else.  The  rick 
should  be  made  when  the  weather  is  settled  and  certain,  for 
if  rain  falls  upon  it  during  the  process,  it  will  materially  in- 
jure the  hemp.  There  ought  always  to  be  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  hands  in  the  field  to  gather,  bind  the  shocks,  and  finish 
the  ricking  in  a  single  day. 

Time  of  dew  rotting. — The  best  time  for  spreading 
hemp  for  dew  rotting,  is  in  the  month  of  December.  *  It 
then  receives  what  is  called  a  winter  rot,  and  makes  the  lint 
of  the  hemp  a  light  color,  and  its  quality  better  than  if  spread 
out  early.  But  where  a  farmer  has  a  large  crop,  it  is  desira- 
ble to  have  a  part  of  his  hemp  ready  to  take  up  late  in  Decem- 
ber, so  that  he  may  commence  breaking  in  January.  To  ac- 
complish this  object,  a  part  of  his  crop  may  be  spread  about 
the  middle  of  October.  It  would  not  be  prudent  to  spread 
earlier,  as  hemp  will  not  obtain  a  good  rot  if  spread  out 
when  the  weather  is  warm.  The  experienced  hemp-groweri' 
is  at  no  loss  to  tell  when  hemp  is  sufficiently  watered.  A 
trial  of  a  portion  of  it  on  the  break  will  be  the  best  test  for 
those  who  have  not  had  much  experience.  When  sufficiently 
watered,  the  stalks  of  the  hemp  lose  that  hard,  sticky  ap- 


uemp.  Isb 

pearance  or  feel,  which  they  retain  till  the  process  is  com- 
pleted. The  lint  also  begins  to  separate  from  the  stalk,  and 
the  fibres  will  show  themselves  somewhat  like  the  strings  of 
a  liddle-bow  attached  to  the  stalk  at  two  distant  points,  and 
separate  in  the  middle.  This  is  a  sure  indication  that  the 
hemp  has  a  good  rot. 

Shocking  after  breaking  and  rotting. — When 
hemp  is  fit  to  be  taken  up,  it  should  be  immediately  put  in 
shocks,  without  binding,  of  suitable  size.  If  it  is  dry,  the 
shocks  should  be  immediately  tied  with  a  hemp-band,  by 
drawing  the  tops  as  closely  together  as  possible,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  rain  from  wetting  the  inside.  If  carefully  put  up 
and  tied,  they  will  turn  rain  completely.  Each  shock  should 
be  large  enough  to  produce  from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  of  lint. 
If  the  hemp  should  be  considerably  damp,  when  taken  up,  the 
shocks  should  be  lefl:  untied  at  the  tops  until  they  have  time 
to  dry.  If  shocks  are  not  well  put  up,  they  are  liable  to 
blow  down  by  a  strong  wind.  To  guard  against  this,  it  is 
desirable,  when  commencing  a  shock,  to  tie  a  band  around 
the  first  armful  or  two  that  may  be  set  up,  and  then  raise  up 
the  parcel  so  tied,  and  beat  it  well  against  the  ground  so  as 
to  make  it  stand  firmly,  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  The 
balance  of  the  shock  should  now  be  set  regularly  around  the 
part  as  herein  directed.  If  hemp  be  carefully  shocked,  it 
will  receive  little  or  no  injury  till  the  weather  becomes  warm. 
In  the  mean  time  it  should  be  broke  out  as  rapidly  as  possi- 
ble. If  the  operation  be  completed  by  the  middle  of  April, 
no  material  loss  will  be  sustained.  If  delayed  to  a  later  pe- 
riod,  more  or  less  loss  of  lint  will  be  the  consequence.  Cool, 
frosty  weather  is  much  the  best  for  hemp-breaking.  In  that 
state  of  the  weather,  if  the  hemp  is  good,  first-rate  hands  on 
the  common  hemp-break,  will  clean  two  hundred  pounds  per 
day  upon  an  average.  Two  of  my  best  hands,  during  the 
past  season,  for  every  day  they  broke,  favorable  and  unfavor- 
able, averaged  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  pounds.  Two 
others,  who  are  young  men  and  not  full  hands,  averaged  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  pounds.  The  ordinary  task  for  hands 
is  one  hundred  pounds.' — Beatiy. 

Hemp  break. — The  hand  hemp-break  is  made  pre- 
cisely like  that  for  flax,  only  much  larger  ;  the  under  slats  on 
the  hinder  end  are  16  to  18  inches  apart,  at  the  fore-end  they 
approach  within  three  inches  of  each  other.  The  slats  in 
the  upper  jaw  are  so  placed  as  to  break  joints  into  the  lower 


180  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

one,  as  it  is  brought  down  on  to  the  hemp.  It  is  a  machine 
so  common,  however,  that  we  deem  further  description  un- 
necessary. After  breaking  out  the  hemp,  it  is  twisted  into 
bunches,  and  sent  to  the  press-house  to  be  baled,  and  is  then 
transported  to  market." 

Water  rotting. — "  We  think  the  best  plan  for  water 
rotting  is  in  vats  under  cover,  the  water  in  which  is  kept  at 
an  equable  temperature.  The  hemp  thus  gets  a  perfect  rot 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  in  seven  or  ten  days,  and  when 
dried,  is  of  a  bright,  greenish,  flaxen  color,  and  is  considered 
by  many,  of  a  better  quality,  and  appears  as  handsomely  as 
the  finest  Russian,  and  brings  as  high  a  price  in  market. 
These  vats  may  be  easily  constructed  and  managed,  and  if 
built  in  a  central  position,  by  a  company  of  planters  on  joint 
account,  they  would  be  but  of  small  expense  to  each,  and  all 
in  turn  could  be  accommodated  by  them.  The  hemp  is  first 
broken  in  a  machine,  which  is  moved  by  steam  power,  pre- 
vious to  rotting,  this  lessens  the  bulk  greatly,  by  ridding  it  of 
most  of  its  woody  fibre ;  but  the  process  is  not  esssntial  to 
rotting  in  vats,  and  can  be  dispensed  with  where  the  ma- 
chines do  not  exist.  If  to  be  rotted  in  spring  or  river  water, 
artificial  pools  or  vats  must  be  formed  for  this  purpose,  and 
should  not  be  over  three  feet  deep,  otherwise  the  hemp  is  lia- 
ble to  an  unequal  rot.  It  will  require  plank  placed  upon  it 
weighted  down  with  timbers  or  stones,  in  order  to  keep  it 
well  under  water.  Mr.  Myerle  recommends  vats  40  feet  long, 
20  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  deep,  as  best  and  the  most  conven- 
ient for  the  season,  that  the  hemp  is  kept  cleaner  while  rot- 
ting, and  the  hands  can  lay  it  down  in  the  vats  and  take  it  out 
without  getting  wet,  which  is  very  important  to  the  health  of 
the  laborer.  These  vats  also  greatly  facilitate  the  operation, 
and  can  be  fed  with  water  and  have  it  run  oflf  at  pleasure, 
without  endangering  loss  from  the  hemp.  Water  rotting  in 
streams,  requires  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  according  to  the 
season.  In  September,  when  the  water  is  warm,  ten  days 
is  generally  sufficient ;  in  October,  about  fifteen,  and  in  De- 
cember, thirty  days  or  more.  For  the  latitude  of  Kentucky, 
October  and  November  are  considered  the  best  months  for 
the  operation,  and  perhaps  is  easiest  done,  gives  more  lint,* 
and  upon  the  whole,  as  good  a  sample  as  if  deferred  later. "*^ 
— (American  Agriculturist.) 

Raising  Hemp  seed. — It  is  important  that  the  farmer 
should  be  supplied  with  good  seed,  which  is  free  from  weeds, 
and  this  he  can  only  be  certain  of  when  he   produces  it,  him- 


HEMP.  187 

self.  This  requires  another  system  of  cultivation,  but  simi- 
lar soil,  which  should  be  the  in  finest  condition  as  to  fertility 
and  pulverization.  An  old  pasture  or  meadow  heavily  ma- 
nured and  plowed  in  the  fall  and  well  pulverized  in  the  spring 
furnishes  the  best  soil.  We  again  quote  from  Judge  Beatty's 
valuable  essays  on  practical  agriculture  : 

"  The  seed  should  be  planted  as  we  do  corn,  either  in  hills 
or  drills.  I  prefer  the  former,  because  it  admits  of  easier 
and  better  cultivation,  as  the  plow  can  be  used  both  ways. 
It  is  usual  to  plant  five  feet  apart,  each  way,  and  suffer  four 
or  five  stalks  to  stand  in  a  hill  until  the  blossom  hemp  is  re- 
moved,  and  then  reduce  the  number  so  as  not  to  exceed  two 
stalks  in  a  hill.  Thus  there  would  be  two  seed  plants  for 
each  twenty-five  square  feet.  It  would  be  a  better  practice 
to  make  the  hills  three  feet  six  inches  apart,  each  way,  and 
thin  the  hemp  to  three  stalks  in  a  hill,  till  the  blossom  hemp 
appears,  and  at  the  proper  time  cut  out  the  blossom  or  male 
hemp ;  and,  if  necessary,  a  part  of  the  seed  hemp,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  latter  to  one  stalk  in  the  hill.  If  each  hill  should 
contain  one  stalk,  there  would  be  two  seed  stalks  for  each 
twenty-four  and  a  half  square  feet.  This  will  give  a  greater 
number  of  seed  stalks  per  acre  than  planting  five  feet  each 
way,  and  leaving  two  in  a  hill.  According  to  this  plan,  each 
seed  plant  will  stand  by  itself,  and,  having  its  appropriate 
space  of  ground,  can  spread  its  branches  without  obstruction. 
According  to  the  other  plan,  two  seed  plants,  standing  to- 
gether, will  obstruct  each  other,  in  putting  forth  lateral 
branches,  and  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  produce  twice  as 
much  as  the  single  stalk. 

*'  The  ground  for  hemp  seed,  having  been  well  prepared  by 
at  least  two  plowings,  and  a  number  of  harrowings,  suffi- 
cient to  pulverize  the  ground,  it  should  be  laid  off  as  above 
directed,  and  planted  in  the  same  manner  as  corn,  except 
that  the  seed  need  not  be  covered  more  than  an  inch  and  a 
half  deep.  Thelve  or  fifteen  seed  shoidd  be  dropped  in  each 
hill,  which  should  be  somewhat  scattered  to  prevent  them 
from  being  too  much  crowded  in  the  hill.  Though  good 
^hemp  seed  is  certain  to  come  up,  yet  it  is  prudent  to  plant 
about  the  number  suggested  to  guard  against  casualties.  Soon 
after  the  hemp  seed  comes  up,  a  small  shovel  plough  should 
be  run  through,  both  ways,  once  in  a  row.  If  the  ground  is 
not  foul,  the  ploughing  may  be  delayed  till  the  hemp  is  a  few 
inches  high,  which  will  enable  the  plowman  to  avoid  throw- 
ing the  dirt  on  the  tender  plants.     The  hoes  should  follow  the 


186  AMERICAN     AGitlCULTtJRE. 

second  plowing,  and  clean  away  the  weeds,  if  any,  in  or 
near  the  hill,  and  thin  out  the  hemp  to  seven  or  eight  stalks. 
These  should  be  the  most  thrifty  plants,  and  somewhat  sepa- 
rated from  each  other.  The  plowing  should  be  repeated 
from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  keep  the  ground  light  and  free  from 
weeds.  And  when  the  plants  are  about  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a 
half  high,  the  hoes  should  again  go  over  the  ground  and  care- 
fully cut  down  any  weeds  or  grass  which  may  have  escaped 
the  plow.  Tiie  plants  should  be  still  further  thinned  out,  at 
this  time,  leaving  but  four  in  a  hill,  and  some  fine  mold  drawn 
around  the  plants,  so  as  to  cover  any  small  weeds  that  may 
have  come  up  around  them.  After  seed  hemp  has  attained 
the  height  of  a  foot  and  a  half,  it  will  soon  be  too  large  to 
plow,  but  it  ought  to  have  one  plowing  after  the  last  hoe- 
ing. The  ground,  by  this  tinxe,  will  have  become  so  much 
shaded  by  the  hemp  plants  as  to  prevent  the  weeds  from  grow- 
ing, so  as  to  do  any  injurvj  and  nothing  more  need  to  be  done 
but  for  a  boy  to  follow  the  plow,  and  (if  three  and  a  half 
feet  be  the  distance  of  the  hills  apart,)  reduce  the  number  of 
plants  invariably  to  three,  taking  care  to  remove  those  which 
the  last  plowing  may  have  broken  or  injured,  by  the  tread- 
ing of  the  horse  or  otherwise.  The  next  operation  will  be  to 
cut  out  the  blossom  or  male  hemp.  This,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  some  farmers,  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  blos- 
som begins  to  show,  in  order  to  make  room  for  the  seed  hemp 
to  grow  and  spread  its  branches.  This  opinion  must  be  taken 
with  some  allowance.  The  farina  or  pollen  of  the  male  hemp 
is  necessary  to  fertilize  the  seed  bearing  plants.  The  seed  of 
the  latter  would  be  wholly  unproductive,  if  the  whole  of  the 
male  hemp  should  be  cut  before  its  pollen  has  been  thrown 
out.  It  is  important  to  cut  the  male  hemp  so  soon  as  it  has 
performed  its  office,  because  much  room  is  thereby  afforded  to 
the  seftd  bearing  plants  to  spread  their  branches. 

<*  When  the  seed  hemp  has  so  far  advanced  as  readily  to 
distinguish  the  male  from  the  female  plants  let  all  the  blossom 
hemp  be  cut  out,  except  one  stalk  in  every  other  hill,  and 
every  other  row.  This  would  leave  one  stalk  of  male  hemp 
for  every  four  hills.  These,  together  with  the  stalks  which 
should  thereafter  blossom,  would  b6  sufficient  to  fertilize  all 
the  seed  bearing  plants,  and  sectn-e  a  crop  of  perfect  seed. — 
After  the  blossom  plants,  thus  left,  have  been  permitted  to  re- 
main until  they  have  pretty  well  discharged  their  pollen 
(which  can  be  easily  ascertained  by  dust  ceasing  to  flow  from 


COTTON.  189 

them  when  agitated)  they,  also,  should  be  cut  down.  Some 
farmers  top  the  seed  plants,  when  five  or  six  feet  high,  to 
make  them  branch  more  freely,  but  this  is  not  necessary 
where  but  one  or  two  seed  bearing  plants  are  suffered  to  re- 
main in  each  hill." 

A  seed  bearing  hemp  crop  is  a  great  exhauster  of  land, 
while  such  as  is  grown  only  for  the  fibre  takes  but  a  mode- 
rate amount  of  fertilizing  matter  from  the  soil.  Unlike  most 
crops  sown  broadcast,  it  grows  with  such  strength  and  luxu- 
riance, as  to  keep  the  weeds  completely  smothered,  and  it 
may  therefore  be  grown  for  many  successive  seasons  on  the 
same  field.  Its  entire  monopoly  of  the  ground,  prevents  the 
growth  of  clover  or  the  grains   In  connexion  with  it. 

TJie  seed  yields  an  oil  of  inferior  value,  and  when  cooked,  it 
affords  a  fattening  food  for  animals. 

COTTON  {Gossyiiium.) 

Has,  within  the  few  past  year^  become  the  leading  agricul- 
tural export  of  the  United  States.  The  total  amount  of  the 
cotton  crop  in  this  country  in  1845,  was  estimated  at  about 
850,000,000  lbs.  This  enormous  product  has  mainly  grown 
up  within  the  last  60  years.  Even  as  late  as  1825  our  total 
production  Avas  within  170,000,000.  The  introduction  of 
Whitney's  cotton  gin,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century 
gave  the  first  decided  movement  towards  the  growth  of 
American  cotton.  Previous  to  this  invention  the  separating 
of  the  cotton  seed  from  the  fibre  was  mostly  done  by  hand, 
and  the  process  was  so  slow  and  expensive  as  to  prevent  any 
successful  competition  with  the  foreign  article.  This  incom- 
parable invention,  which  cleaned  1000  lbs  in  the  same  time 
a  single  pound  could  be  cleaned  without  it,  overcame  the 
only  obstacle  to  complete  success,  and  millions  of  acres  of 
the  fertile  lands  of  the  south  and  west  are  now  annually  cov- 
ered with  the  snowy  product.  The  increase  seems  to  know 
no  check  or  abaten\ent,  as  with  the  lessening  price  and  in- 
creasing quantity,  the  demand  seems  constantly  to  augment. 

Climate  and  Soil. — Cotton  will  grow  in  some  of  the 
middle  states,  but  with  little  profit  north  of  the  Carolinas 
and  Tennesee.     The  soil  required  is  a  dr}-,  rich  loam. 

Cultivation. — During  the  winter,  the  land  intended  for 
planting  should  be  thrown  up  in  beds  by  turning  several  fui 
rows  together.     These  beds  should  be  4  feet  from  centre  to 
centre  for  a  moderate  quality  of  upland  soil,  and  5  feet  for 
the  lowland.     But  these  distances  should  be  increased  with 


190  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

the  increasing  strength  of  the  soil  to  7  and  8  feet  for  the 
strongest  lands.  These  may  lie  until  the  time  of  planting, 
from  20th  of  March  to  20th  of  April,  when  no  further  danger 
from  frost  is  apprehended ;  then  harrow  thoroughly  and  with 
a  light  plow  mark  the  centre  of  the  beds  and  sow  at  the  rate 
of  2  to  5  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  A  drilling  machine  might 
be  made  to  answer  this  purpose  better  and  save  much  time. 
An  abundance  of  seed  is  necessary  to  provide  for  the  ene- 
mies of  the  plant,  which  are  frequently  very  destructive.  If 
all  the  seed  germinates,  there  will  be  a  large  surplus  of  plants, 
which  must  be  removed  by  thijming.  The  kind  of  useed  sed 
for  uplands  is  Mexican  and  Petit-Gulf,  both  of  the  same  vari- 
ety, but  the  last  is  better  selected  and  has  been  kept  pure. — 
There  is  an  advantage  in  mixing  the  seed  before  it  is  sown, 
with  moistened  ashes  or  gypsum,  as  it  facilitates  sowing  and 
germination.  The  seed  should  be  buried  from  Ho  H  inches, 
and  the  earth  pressed  closely  over  it.  The  subsequent  cul- 
tivation is  performed  with  ^various  instruments,  the  bill- 
tongue  or  scooter,  the  shovel,  double  shovel,  the  sweep,  the 
harrow,  the  cultivator  and  the  hoe.  One  or  more  of  the  for- 
mer must  be  used  to  pulverize  the  land  and  uproot  and  clean 
off  the  weeds;  while  the  last  is  necessary  to  carry  this  ope- 
ration  directly  up  to  the  stem  of  the  plants.  The  culture  is 
thus  summarily  stated  by  Dr.  Phillips  :  '*  Commence  clearing 
the  cotton  early ;  clean  it  well ;  return  to  it  as  soan  as  pos- 
sible, throw  earth  or  mould  to  tiie  young  plants,  and  if  the 
ground  be  hard  give  it  a  thorough  plowing ;  keep  the  earth 
light  and  mellow  and  the  plants  cljar  of  grass  .and  weeds." 
The  plants  are  thinned  at  every  hoeing,  till  they  attain  a 
height  of  3  or  four  inches,  when  two  or  three  are  allowed  to 
stand  together  at  intervals  of  about  8  inches  for  a  m?.dium 
quality  of  soil.  This  distance  should  be  largely  increased 
when  it  is  richer.  Cotton  is  subject  to  the  cut  and  army 
worm,  the  slug  and  catterpillar,  cotton  lice,  rot,  sore  shin  and 
rust.  We  have  seen  no  remedies  prescribed  for  either,  but 
we  suggest  for  experiment  the  exposure  of  th(^  two  former  to 
frost,  by  plowing  just  before  its  appearance.  The  free  use 
of  lime  and  salt  and  similar  manures  might  arrest  or  mitigate 
the  eflects  of  all.  Birds  should  also  be  encouraged  upon  the 
fields,asthey  would  destroy  numbers  of  the  worm  and  insect t' 
tribes.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  introduction  of  the  Mex- 
ican and  Petit-Ciulf  varieties  is  the  mosteflcctual  remedy,  as 
they  furnish  hardier  kinds,  which  are  less  the  object  of  attack 
and  have  a  greater  ability  to  withstand  it. 


COTTON.  191 

Harvesting  is  commenced  when  the  bolls  have  begun  to 
expand  and  the  cotton  is  protruded,  and  this  is  continued 
from  time  to  time  as  the  bolls  successively  ripen  and  burst 
their  capsules.  It  is  done  entirely  by  hand,  the  picker  pass- 
ing between  two  rows  and  gleaning  from  each.  The  cotton 
is  placed  in  a  bag  capable  ot  containing  15  or  20  lbs.  which 
is  hung  upon  his  shoulders  or  strapped  upon  his  breast. — 
These  are  emptied  into  large  baskets  which  are  taken,  when 
filled,  to  the  gin-house.  We  quote  again  from  Dr.  Philips  : 
"  Having  all  things  ready  for  picking  cotton,  I  commence  as 
usual  early,  as  soon  as  the  hands  can  gather  even  20  lbs. 
each.  This  is  advisable,  not  only  in  saving  a  portion  of  that 
from  being  destroyed,  if  rains  should  fall,  which  often  do  at 
this  season  (about  the  middle  of  August,)  but  for  another  rea- 
son ;  passing  through  the  cotton  has  a  tendency  to  open  out 
to  sun  and  air  the  limbs  that  have  interlocked  across  the 
rows,  and  hastens  the  early  opening.  On  low  grounds,  espe- 
cially, much  loss  is  incurred  in  some  seasons  from  the  want 
of  the  sun  to  cause  an  expansion  of  the  fibre  within  the  boll, 
so  as  to  cause  it  to  open.  The  boll  is  composed  of  five  di- 
visions, in  each  of  which  there  is  a  parcel  of  cotton  wool 
surrounding  each  seed,  there  being  several  in  each  lock  of 
cotton.  When  green,  these  fibres  lie  close  to  the  seed,  and 
as  it  ripens,  the  fibres  become  elastic,  the  boll  becoming 
hard  and  brownish.  The  Sea  Island  has  only  three  divisions, 
as  also  the  Egyptian,  which  is  only  the  Sea  Island  of  the  best 
variety,  with  black  seed,  smooth,  and  a  yellowish  tuft  of  fibres 
on  the  small  end ;  they  are  both  from  Pernambuco.  Some 
of  the  cotton  we  plant  has  only  four  divisions,  but  I  think  five 
generally.  There  is  a  peculiar  art  in  gathering  the  cotton 
from  the  boll,  which,  like  handling  stock,  can  only  be  acquired 
by  practice  ;  many  gather  equally  fast  with  either  hand.  The 
left  hand  seizes  the  stem  near  the  open  boll,  or  the  boll  be- 
tween the  two  middle  fingers,  the  palm  of  the  hand  up ;  the 
fingers  of  the  riglit  hand  are  inserted  tolerably  low  down  in 
the  boll,  a  finger  on  each  lock  of  cotton  ;  then,  as  the  fin- 
gers grasp  it,  there  is  a  slight  twisting  motion,  and  a  quick 
pull,  which,  if  done  well,  will  extract  the  contents,  the  boll 
being  open,  and  the  bottom  of  the  locks  not  gummy  to  adhere. 
There  is  a  vast  difference  in  hands — ^not  the  quickest  making 
the  best  pickers — a  steady,  clocklike  motion,  with  some 
quickness,  is  necessary  to  gather  fast.  A  neighbor  of  mine, 
when  a  young  man,  some  ten  years  since,  gathered  400  lbs., 
which  was  at  that  time  the  best  I  had  known  ;  this  has  been 


192  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUHE. 

beaten  since,  by  aiding  the  hand  in  emptying  his  sacks,  and 
almost  feeding  and  watering  him  while  at  work." 

"  Cotton  should  be  gathered  from  the  field  as  clean  as  possi- 
ble, taken  to  the  scaffolds  and  dried  until  the  seed  will  crack 
when  pressed  between  the  teeth,  not  crush  or  mash,  but 
crack  with  some  noise.  It  should  be  frequently  turned  over 
and  stirred  (all  the  trash  and  rotten  pods  taken  out  while  this 
is  being  done,)  so  as  to  insure  its  drying  earlier. 

If  seeds  are  wanted  for  planting,  gin  the  cotton  immediately, 
and  spread  the  seed  over  the  floor  some  five  inches  thick,  until 
perfectly  dry.  If  the  cotton-seed  be  not  wanted,  pack  the 
seed-cotton  away  into  the  house,  to  remain  until  a  gentle  heat 
is  discovered,  or  until  sufficient  for  ginning ;  after  it  has  heated 
until  a  feeling  of  warmth  to  the  hand,  and  it  looks  as  if  press- 
ed together,  open  out  and  scatter  to  cool.  This  cotton  will 
gin  faster,  have  a  softer  feel,  is  not  so  brittle,  therefore  not  so 
liable  to  break  by  rapidity  of  ghi,  and  has  a  creamy  color ; 
the  wool  has  imbibod  a  part  of  the  oil  that  has  exuded  by  the 
warmth  of  seed,  and  is  in  fact  restored  to  the  original  color ; 
for  the  oil  being  vegetable,  it  is  dissipated  by  sun  and  air,  and 
the  color  by  moisture  (of  rain  and  dews)  and  light.  I  have 
known  of  a  number  of  sales  made  of  this  description  of  cotton, 
and  even  those  who  are  most  strenuous  against  the  heating, 
admit  it  bore  a  better  price."  The  cotton  is  then  ginned 
and  baled,  when  it  is  ready  for  market. 

Topping  Cotton  between  the  20th  July  and  20th  August 
is  practised  by  many  planters  with  decided  success.  It  is 
thought  by  the  foregoing  authority,  highly  beneficial  in  dry 
seasons,  but  not  in  wet,  and  that  in  three  years  out  of  five  it 
is  attended  with  particular  advantage  to  the  crop. 

Sea  Island  Cotton  requires  in  many  respects  a  treat- 
ment unlike  that  of  the  upland.  We  insert  an  article  by 
Thomas  Spalding,  Esq.  who  has  long  been  engaged  in  its 
cultivation. 

-  "  The  Sea-Island  cotton  was  introduced  into  Georgia'from 
the  Bahamas ;  the  seed  was  from  a  small  island  near  St. 
Domingo,  known  as  Arguilla,  then  producing  the  best  cotton 
of  the  western  world.  It  in  no  way  resembles  the  Brazil 
cotton  which  is  the  kidney-seed  kind,  introduced  some  years 
later,  and  which  after  trial,  was  rejected  in  Georgia.  T^is 
seed  came  in  small  parcels  from  the  Bahamas  in  the  winter 
of  1785.  It  gradually  and  slowly  made  its  way  along  the 
coastof  Georgia,  and  passed  into  Carolina,  from  the  year 
1790,  to  1792.     The  winter  of  1786  in  Georgia  was  a  miW 


COTTON.  193 

one,  and  although  the  plants  of  the  Sea-Island  cotton  that 
year  had  not  ripened  their  seed  ;  it  being  a  perennial,  and 
subject  only  to  be  killed  by  frost,  it  started  the  next  season 
(1787)  from  the  roots  uf  the  previous  year,  its  seed  ripened, 
and  the  plants  became  acclimated.  Many  changes  have 
come  over  this  seed  since  that  time  from  difference  of  soil, 
of  culture,  and  local  position ;  and  above  all,  from  careful 
selection  of  seed.  But  it  requires  to  be  discovered,  that  what 
IS  gained  in  fineness  of  wool,  is  lost  in  the  quality  and  v/eight 
of  the  product ;  for  in  spite  of  a  zeal  and  intelligence 
brought  to  act  upon  tho  subject  without  parallel,  the  crops 
are  yearly  dim.inishing ;  until  to  grow  Sea-Island  cotton  is 
one  of  the  most  profitless  pursuits  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

"The  Culture. — When  the  Sea-Island  cotton-s«ed  was 
introduced  in  1786,  it  was  planted  in  hills  prepared  upon  the 
level  field,  at  five  feet  each  way ;  but  it  was  soon  learned, 
that  of  all  plants  that  grow,  it  is  in  its  first  vegetaition  and 
early  stage  the  most  tender  ;  liable  to  suffer  by  storms,  by 
wind,  by  drought,  and  by  excess  of  rain.  The  quantity  of 
seed  was  therefore  increased,  and  the  plants  multiplied, 
until,  as  in  m.ost  other  cases,  one  extreme  produced  another. 
For  many  years,  however,  among  experienced  planters,  the 
course  is  to  divide  their  enclosed  fields,  into  two  portions ; 
the  one  at  rest,  the  other  in  culture. 

"  Preparing  the  Land  for  the  CROpf— Early  in  Feb- 
ruary, any  hands  not  engaged  in  preparing  the  previous 
crop  for  market,  are  employed  in  cleaning  up  the  rested 
fields,  and  either  in  burning  off  the  fennel-weeds  and  grass 
of  the  previous  year,  or  in  listing  them  in  at  five  feet  apart, 
to  serve  as  the  base  of  the  future  ridges  or  bed.  There  is 
much  difference  of  opinion,  upon  the  subject  of  burning  or 
listing  in ;  for  myself,  I  am  inclined  to  take  the  first  opinion, 
believing  that  the  light  dressing  of  ashes  the  field  reoeives 
from  burning  off,  is  more  beneficial  to  the  soil  than  the  decay 
of  the  vegetable  matter,  and  renders  it  less  liable  to  produce 
what  is  a  growing  evil,  the  rust,  a  species  of  blight,  much 
resembling  the  rust  or  blight  upon  wheat,  and  which  takes 
place  about  the  same  period,  just  as  the  plant  is  putting  out 
and  preparing  to  ripen  its  fruit. 

"Ridging. — The  land  being  listed  in  short  lines  across 
the  entire  field,  at  five  feet  apart,  the  operation  of  ridging  is 
commenced  about  the  first  of  March.     The  ridges  occupy 
H 


194  AaiEKICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

the  entire  surface  ;  that  is,  the  foot  of  one  ridge  commencing 
where  the  other  ridge  ends,  and  rising  about  eight  inches 
above  the  natural  level  of  the  land,  thus  presenting  a  surface 
almost  as  smooth,  and  almost  as  deeply  worked  as  a  garden- 
bed.  This  ridging  is  carried  on  but  a  few  days  ahead  of  the 
planting.  The  ridge,  if  the  operation  has  been  carefully 
done,  is  from  2  to  2^  feet  broad  at  top  ;  it  is  then  trenched 
on  the  upper  surface  with  the  hoe,  six  inches  wide,  and 
from  three  to  six  inches  deep,  depending  upon  the  period  of 
planting. 

"Planting. — In  the  beginning,  if  the  seed  is  covered 
more  than  two  inches  with  soil,  the  soil  will  not  feel  the 
inflence  of  the  sun,  and  the  seed  will  not  vegetate  later;  that 
is,  in  April  up  to  the  first  of  May,  you  must  give  from  three 
to  four  inches  of  covering  to  preserve  the  moisture,  or  there, 
too,  you  fail  from  an  opposite  cause,  the  wind  and  burning 
influence  of  the  sun  drying  the  soil  too  much  for  vegetation. 
In  most  countries,  after  sowing  the  seed  the  roller  is  applied; 
but  in  cotton- planting,  in  our  ridge-husbandry,  the  foot  in 
covering  the  seed  and  pressing  down  the  earth  well  sup- 
plies its  place. 

**  Quantity  op  Sekd  per  Acre. — A  bushel  of  seed  is 
generally  sown  to  the  acre,  1  believe  half  a  bushel  is  better ; 
for  where  the  evil  comes,  whether  the  worm,  or  Avind,  or 
drought,  or  wet,  there  is  no  security  in  the  many  ;  but  on 
the  contrary,  where  they  come  up  thin,  they  soon  grow  out 
of  the  way  of  injury  from  any  enemy. 

"  After-Culture. — The  cultivation  of  Sea-Island  cotton 
is  carried  on  by  the  hand«hoe,  and  the  quantity  always 
limited  to  four  acres  to  the  laborer.  The  operation  of 
weeding  commences  as  soon  as  we  finish  planting,  because 
in  our  flat  and  sandy  soils  the  grass-seed  springs  with  the 
first  growth  of  the  cotton,  and'by  the  time  we  finish  plant- 
ing, say  the  first  of  May,  what  we  planted  in  March  requires 
the  hoe.  The  land  is  kept  in  the  operation  of  hoeing  and 
weeding  as  far  as  may  be,  at  its  original  level,  the  beds 
neither  increased  or  diminished,  that  rains  which  generally 
fall  with  beating  power,  and  in  redundant  quantity,  in  the 
month  of  August,  may  as  little  as  possible  injure  the  grow- 
ing plants,  which  are  then  in  full  bearing.  The  young  cot- 
ton is  thinned  out  slowly  at  from  six  to  twelve  inches  apart 
on  the  ridge,  by  the  10th  of  June.  As  soon  as  the  rains 
commence,  which  is  about  the  last  of  July,  it  is  wise  to  leave 


COTTON.  195 

nature  to  hisrself,  and  no  longer  disturb  the  soil ;  four  hoe- 
ings  if  well  done,  and  the  grass  well  well  picked  at  each 
hoeing,  is  enough  ;  nor  does  any  aftergrowth  of  grass  do 
injury. 

** Manures  and  SoilingStock.— For  ten  years  past,  great 
efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Sea-island  planters,  in  ma- 
nuring. Much  of  the  alluvion  of  our  salt  rivers  have  been 
collected,  and  sometimes  placed  directly  in  heaps  through 
Ihe  tields  at  rest,  at  other  times  placed  in  cattle-pens,  on 
which  cotton-seed,  and  all  waste  materials  are  strewn,  and 
the  cattle  pounded  up  on  it.  But  what  is  preferred,  is  to  pen 
our  cattle  near  the  river  at  night,  and  cut  salt-grass,  which 
covers  these  alluvion  lands,  and  which  is  as  nutritious  as  so 
much  clover.  Great  benefits  will  result  from  the  use  of 
marl,  I  have  no  doubt,  hereafter. 

"  Amount  of  Crop  per  Acre  and  Picking. — It  has  been 
stated  already,  that  500  lbs.  to  the  acre  is  about  the  medium 
crop,  which  at  20  cents  per  lb.,  (more  than  the  actual  price 
for  the  last  three  years,)  is  to  the  planter  ^100  for  gross 
crop  ;  and  from  this  hundred  dollars  is  to  be  subtracted  bag- 
ging, freight,  expenses  of  sale,  clothing  for  his  people, 
medical  attention,  and  too  often  provisions." - 

The  Varieties  which  have  been  cultivated  with  success 
in  the  United  States,  in  addition  to  those  enumerated,  are 
ihe  Rio,  with  a  staple  about  three  inches  in  length  of  a 
glossy,  silky  texture,  brought  from  South  America;  the 
Egyptian^  received  from  the  garden  of  Mehemet  Ali  and 
grown  in  Louisiana  15  feet  in  height ;  the  Mastodon^  lately 
introduced  from  Mexico,  firm  in  texture  and  highly  produc- 
tive ;  tlie  Chinese  Silk  Cotton,  white,  soft,  fine  and  silky  ;  the 
East  India-,  growing  to  a  height  of  14  feet  and  producing  a 
beautiful  fibre ;  and  tlw  Nanlceen.,  a  handsome  staple  of  a 
true  nankeen  color,  raised  by  the  late  Hon.  John  Forsyth 
of  Georgia,  and  some  other  planters. 

Cotton  Seed. — The  amount  of  seed  in  cotton  is  large, 
being  nearly  70  per  cent,  of  the  entire  gathering,  the  fibre 
being  about  28.  This  is  used  for  various  purposes.  Some- 
times it  is  pressed  for  its  oil,  of  which  it  yields  from  15  to  20 
per  cent,  of  its  own  weight.  When  thus  treated,  the  cake 
is  used  for  cattle  food.  The  seed  is  frequently  though  impro- 
perly fed  raw  to  stock,  and  this  often  proves  fatal  espe- 
cially to  swine,  besides  being  attended  with  much  waste.  It 
is  most  advantageously  prepared  by  boiling  for  half  an  hour, 


196  AMERICAN    AGHIClTItTUEE. 

when  it  will  benefit  all  descriptions  of  ptock.  By  adding  an 
equal  quantity  of  corn  and  boiling  them  together  it  will  fat- 
ten swine  rapidly.     It  is  also  useful  to  kind  as  a  manure. 

THE  SUGAR  CANE  {Saccharuinofficinamm.) 

The  cultivation  of  the  cane  is  an  important  branch  of  South- 
ern agriculture.  Its  first  introduction  into  this  country,  is 
said  to  have  been  in  1751,  by  some  French  Jesuits,  who  plan- 
ted it  on  the  present  site  of  New^-Orleans.  But  it  was  not 
until  between  1794  and  1800,  Avhen  the  revolution  in  St. 
Domingo  sent  hundreds  of  their  planters  into  that  state,  that 
the  growth  of  the  cane  became  an  object  of  decided  impor- 
tance. They  brought  with  them  the  small  yellow  Creole, 
the  only  kind  then  cultivated  in  the  French  West  India  islands. 
From  these  lijnited  and  comparatively  recent  beginnings,  the 
product  has  rapidly  increased,  until  it  has  now  become  next 
to  cotton,  the  great  agricultural  export  from  the  Southern 
States.  Over  160,000,000  lbs.,  with  9,000,000  gallons  mo- 
lasses, Avas  the  estimated  crop  for  1845.  In  Louisiana,  the 
great  sugar  producing  state,  it  has  been  cultivated  almost  ex- 
clusively on  the  low  or  rich  level  lands  ;  but  recently,  the  more 
elevated  country  has  been  used  for  it,  and  the  experiments 
have  bljen  such  as  to  justify  the  expectation  that  large  quan- 
tities will  hereafter  be  raised  on  the  uplands.  The  cane  was 
brought  to  Georgia  in  1805  from  the  island  of  Otaheite.  Its 
extension  in  some  parts  of  that  state  and  Florida  was  rapid, 
and  while  sugar  commanded  10  cents  per  pound,  it  was  a  re- 
munerating  crop.  Since  its  decline  to  five  and  six  cents,  tha 
cultivation  has  diminished,  but  it  is  still  largely  raised  for 
domestic  consumption  among  the  planters,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent  for  exportation  to  the  northern  states. 

Cultivation. — The  first  operation  is  to  drain  the  land 
effectually  with  large  open  ditches,  by  which  all  the  surface 
water  is  removed.  The  ground  is  then  thoroughly  prepared 
with'  the  plough,  and  well  liarrowed  if  rough.  "  In  Georgia," 
says  Mr.  Spalding,  "  the  cane  was  cultivated  diirerently  froui 
what  it  was  elsewhere.  It  naturally  took  the  course  of  our 
cotton  culture  of  the  seacoast ;  to  wit,  ridges  at  five  feet  apart ; 
a  trench  was  opened  on  the  top  of  the  ridge,  three  inches 
deep,  in  which  a  double  row  of  cane-plants  were  placed,  cut 
about  two  feet  long,  and  placed  so  as  the  eyes  which  are  al- 
ternate, should  be  on  the  sides,  and  then  covered  with  two 
inches  of  earth.  This  you  may  suppose  in  a  good  season 
gives  a  continued  line  of*  stalks,  not  more  than  three  inches 


THE    SXTGAR    CANF.  197 

apart,  and  throwing  up  cane  five  or  six  feet  fit  for  the  mill. 
1  have  otlen  supposed  that  there  was  growing  of  vegetabh; 
matter  to  the  acre,  from  30  to  40  tons,  certainly  containing 
nK)ie  nutritious  matter  for  stock,  than  any  other  plant  wouhl 
give  upon  the  same  surface.  In  Louisiana  they  planted  al- 
together with  the  plow,  and  had  their  trenches  not  more  than 
2h  feet  apart;  thoy  have  since  gradually  widened  their  dis- 
tance.  When  I  was  there,  they  used  generally  the  old 
French  plow,  with  a  wheel  at  the  end  of  the  beam.  With 
strong  teams,  they  plowed  deep  and  better  than  anywhere  I 
had  seen  in  the  Fouthern  states.  It  was  by  means  of  the 
plow,  that  they  planted  so  many  acres  to  the  laborer ;  and 
again,  because  they  had  little  grass  upon  their  river-lands  ex- 
cept the  nut-grass."  The  cane  may  be  planted  any  time 
between  the  months  of  September  and  March ;  but  is  usu- 
ally done  in  January  and  February  after  the  sugar-making 
is  completed.  Some  planters  have  recently  obtained  large 
crops  by  planting  in  rows  at  a  distance  of  8  feet  apart.  Af- 
ter the  frost  has  disappeared,  the  earth  is  removed  by  the 
plow  from  each  side  of  the  cane,  and  the  top  earth  is  scraped 
off  to  prevent  early  vegetation.  It  is  then  kept  clear  of  weeds 
and  grass  hy  the  frequent  use  of  the  hoe,  till  it  has  produced 
suckers  or  shoots  enough  to  afford  a  full  stand.  In  the  latter 
part  of  May  or  early  in  June  it  should  be  hilled  about  four 
inches,  and  then  left  unmolested  till  ready  for  the  mill.  The 
cane  begins  to  ripen  at  the  bottom  in  August  or  September 
and  advances  upwards  at  the  rate  of  about  six  inches  per 
week,  and  is  usually  fit  for  the  mill  by  the  middle  of  October. 
Harvesting. — The  cane  is  first  topped  while  standing, 
which  consists  in  cutting  off  the  upper  end  of  the  stalk  as  far 
as  the  leaves  are  dry.  The  diy  leaves  are  then  stripped 
from  the  standing  stalk,  and  the  cane  cut  with  a  cane  knife 
close  to  the  ground,  and  carried  in  carls  to  the  mill  where 
it  is  at  once  passed  through  the  rollers  for  expressing  the 
juice.  This  last  is  immediately  put  into  the  kettles,  boiled, 
:^ldmmed,  and  reduced  to  the  proper  point  for  granulation 
<n-  conversion  into  sugar..  The  tops  and  leaves  are  fre- 
quently  left  on  the  ground  for  manure,  or  used  for  stock  feed- 
ing, and  sometimes  they  are  planted.  But  it  is  better  to  use 
the  clioicest  whole  cane  (or  this  purpose ;  and  when  thus  se- 
lected, it  is  cut  beloie  frost  and  laid  down  in  beds  or  matelas 
one  or  tw^o  feet  in  thicknes,  with  the  tops  overlapping  and 
occupying  the  surface  like  shingles  in  a  roof.  Cane  is  gen- 
erally planted  in  this  country  once  in  three  years,  and  it  con- 


196  AMERICAN    AGRICULTFRE. 

tinues  to  grow  vigorously  for  this  period  from  a  single  plant- 
ing.  In  St.  Domingo,  many  of  the  cane  fields  are  irrigated 
from  the  mountain  streams,  by  which  the  cro})  is  largely 
increased,  and  the  ratoons  or  old  plants  last  for  several  years. 
Mr.  Spalding  places  the  average  crop  of  the  uplands  in  Geor- 
gia at  500  lbs.  of  sugar  per  acre,  and  that  of  the  bottom  or 
river  lands,  at  1000  lbs.,  while  that  of  liOuisiana  is  estimated 
at  800  lbs.  The  crushed  cane  is  frequently  used  for  fuel 
where  wood  is  scarce.  This  is  a  wasteful  custom  as  it  is  a 
valuable  food  for  stock.  Large  quantities  of  the  molasses 
have  hertofore  been  used  for  distilling  into  alcohol,  but  the 
manufacture  of  this  has  materially  lessened  of  late,  and  a 
salutary  change  has  been  made  in  its  disposal.  When  it 
would  not  bring  a  remunerating  price  for  exportation,  as  has 
sometimes  been  the  case  in  the  West  Indies,  it  has  been 
mixed  with  other  materials  and  fed  to  stock.  It  is  healthful 
and  excedingly  fattening  to  animals.  Its  great  value  for  con- 
version into  fat  will  be  readily  seen  by  comparing  the  ele. 
ments  of  each.  Sugar  has  been  analyzed  by  several  chem- 
ists with  slightly  varying  results.  According  to  the  follow, 
ing  authorities,  it  consists  of 

Lussac  Sc  Thenard,    Berzelius,  Prout,  Ure, 

Oxygen,  50.63         49.856         53.35         50.33  in  100 

Carbon,  42.47         43.265         39.99         43.38     — 

Hydrogen,  6.90  6.875  6.66  6.29     — 

Fat  according  to  Chevreul,  consists  of  79  carbon  ;  11.4  hy- 
drogen ;  and  9.6  of  oxygen.  The  only  difference  in  the 
chemical  character  of  molasses  and  sugar,  is  that  the  former 
contains  a  considsrable  addition  of  w^ater.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen,  that  fat  and  molasses  are  identical  in  their  constituents 
though  varying  in  their  relative  proportions  ;  and  it  would  be 
fairly  inferable  from  theory,  as  it  has  been  fbund  in  practice, 
that  no  food  is  better  suited  to  the  easy  and  rapid  conversion 
irtto  animal  fat  if  fed  profusely. 

The  varieties  of  cane  cultivated  in  the  United  States, 
are  the  bine  ribbon^  the  stem  of  which  is  hadsomely  striped 
with  blue  and  yellow.  These  were  brought  from  Jamaica, 
and  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Spalding :  "  The  first  is  so 
haixly,  that  I  think  it  might  be  grown  in  warm,  sandy  soils^/ 
dressed  with  animal  manures  and  with  diluted  ashes,  even 
to  New-York,  for  the  feeding  of  cattle,  and  other  useful  pur- 
poses ;  the  cane  for  planting  being  placed  in  dry  cellars,  and 
only  taken  out  for  planting  in  warm  days  in  April.  The 
white  striped  cane  is  the   tenderest  of  all  the  species,  and  in 


SUGAR    MAPLE,  199 

our  cold  season  of  years  past,  has  disappeared  from  among 
us — no  loss,  although  a  very  soft  cane,  and  easily  expressed. 
The  objection  to  the  blue  striped  cane,  it  is  very  hard  to 
grind,  and  really  gives  but  little  juice  at  best ;  it,  however, 
grows  higher,  and  is  adapted  to  lower  grounds,  to  moister 
soils,  and  shorter  seasons,  and  the  plants  are  much  easier 
preserved  for  the  next  year.  Light  frost  upon  the  cane  im- 
proves the  juice,  and  we  have  known  the  green  cane  upon 
Sapelo  Island,  for  a  few  days,  give  juice  that  gave  13  by  the 
hydrometer  when  three  pounds  of  juice  made  a  pound  of  su- 
gar ;  no  cane  in  Jamaica  ever  did  more."  The  blue  ribbon 
is  the  most  prolific  and  most  extensively  cultivated  vo-riety 
on  the  rich  lands  of  Louisiana.  The  Otaheite  is  largely 
raised,  and  with  the  Creole  or  Brazilian,  (now  nearly  super- 
seded,) makes  up  the  cultivated  varieties  of  the  United  States. 
The  Cane  Coverer  recently  invented  by  Mr.  Bryan,  it 
is  affirmed  will  save  a  large  amount  of  labor,  a  boy  and  span 
of  horses  covering  with  it  10  acres  in  a  day,  and  it  is  equally 
efficient  in  removing  the  earth  from  the  cane.  The  hydraulic 
press  has  been  lately  introduced  for  expressing  the  cane  juice, 
which  it  does  at  the  rate  of  6000  gallons  in  every  10  hours, 
either  by  manual  labor  or  with  the  aid  of  a  couple  of  mules. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  it  are  numerous  and  striking. 
The  application  of  steam  to  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  has 
been  introduced  into  Louisiana  quite  recently,  by  Mr.  Riel- 
lieux,  by  which  18,000  lbs.  were  made  in  24  hours,  with 
great  economy  and  advantage. 

MAPLE  SUGAR. 

The  rock,  hard  or  sugar ^maple  tree  (Acer  Saccharinum) 
is  among  our  most  beautiful  shade,  and  most  valuable  forest 
trees,  and  it  stands  next  to  the  sugar  cane  in  the  readiness, 
and  abundance  with  which  it  yields  the  material  for  cane 
sugar.  When  refined,  there  is  no  difference  either  in  appear- 
ance or  quality  between  the  sugar  from  the  cane,  the  maple 
or  the  beet.  In  the  brown  state,  the  condition  in  which  it  is 
sent  to  market,  when  made  with  care  and  formed  into  solid 
cakes,  it  retains  its  peculiar  moisture  and  rich  aromatic  flavor, 
which  makes  it  more  acceptable  to  the  nibblers  of  sweets, 
than  the  most  refined  and  highly  senled  bon-bons  of  the  con- 
fectioner. The  quantity  made  in  this  country,  is  veiy  large, 
though  from  the  fact  of  its  domestic  consumption,  and  its  sel- 
dom reaching  the  large  markets,  there  is  no  estimate  of  the 
the   aggregate   production  which  will  come  very  near  the 


200  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

truth.  The  product  for  Vermont  alone,  for  1845,  was  esti- 
mated at  over  10,000,000  lbs.  The  quantity  supposed  to  be 
annually  sold  in  the  city  of  New  York,  exceeds  10,000  hhds. 
Both  the  vsugar  and  sy7nip  are  used  for  every  purpose  for  which 
the  cane  is  employed. 

The  sugar  maple  extends  from  the  most  northern  limits  of 
Maine  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  to  the  banks  of  the 
Ohio.  Further  South  it  is  rarely  found.  The  cane  and 
maple  approach  each  other  but  scarcely  meet,  and  never  in 
termin^le  as  rivals  in  the  peculiar  region  which  nature  has 
assigned  to  each.  In  some  sections  of  the  country,  the 
sugar  maple  usurps  almost  the  entire  soil,  standing  side  by 
side,  like  thick  ranks  corn,  yet  large  and  lofty,  and  among  the 
noblest  specimens  of  the  forest.  The  writer  has  thus  repeat- 
edly  seen  them  around  the  Manitouwoc  river,  near  the  coast 
of  Lake  Michigan  in  Wisconsin,  and  in  the  beautiful  sugar 
orchards  of  the  same  country,  where  unlike  the  others,  they 
grow  in  open  land  among  the  rich  native  grasses,  their  tops 
graceful  and  bushy  like  the  cultivated  tree,  and  but  for  their 
greater  numbers  and  extent  and  their  more  picturesque 
grouping,  one  would  think  the  hand  of  taste  and  civilization 
had  directed  what  nature  alone  has  accomplished.  And  amid 
those  beautiful  orchards,  or  in  the  depths  of  those  dense  dark 
woods,  the  Indian  wigwam  and  the  settler's  nide  cabin  may 
be  seen,  filled  with  the  solid  cakes  and  mokoks*  which  con- 
tain from  30  to  60  lbs.  of  their  coarse-grained,  luscious 
sugar. 

The  season  for  drawing  and  chrystalizing  the  sap  is  in 
early  spring  when  the  bright  sunny  days  and  clear  frosty 
nights,  give  it  a  full  and  rapid  circulation.  The  larger  trees; 
should  be  selected  and  tapped  by  an  inch  auger  to  the  depth  . 
of  an  inch  and  a  half,  the  hole  inclining  downward  to  hold 
the  sap.  At  the  base  of  this,  another  should  be  made  from 
3-8  to  1-2  an  inch  diameter,  in  which  a  tube  of  elder  or 
Giiipach  should  be  closely  fitted  to  conduct  it  off.  A  rude  con- 
trivance  for  catching  the  sap  is  with  troughs  made  usually  of 
the  easily  wrought  poplar,  but  it  is  better  to  use  vessels  which 
admit  of  thorough  cleansing,  and  these  may  be  suspended  by 
a  bail  or  handle  from  a  peg  driven  into  the  tree   above.     If 

*Mo-kok— An  Indian  sack  or  basket,  with  flaltish  sides  and  rounded  endSf 
similar  in  fasliion  to  a  ladies  travellin<;  satchel.  They  arc  made  perfectly  tight,  o 
tlripa  of  white  birch  bark,  sewed  with  thongs  of  elm.  They  make  some  of  their 
ti  buckets  of  tlie  same  material,  but  different  in  form.  The  small  mo-koks,  tastc- 
f  lily  ornamented  with  various  colored  porcupine  quills  and  filled  with  maple  sugar, 
are  sold  for  toys. 


SUGAR  MAPL£.  201 

uails  aro  used,  they  may  spoil  the  auger  at  some  future  tap- 
ping.  When  the  sugar  season  is  over,  the  holes  ought  to  l>c 
elosely  plugged  and  the  head  cut  off  evenly  with  the  bark 
which  soon  grows  over  the  wound.  If  thus  carefully  man- 
aged,  several  may  be  made  in  a  thrifty  tree  without  any  ap- 
pearent  injury  to  the  tree.  The  barbarous,  slovenly  mode  of 
half  girdling  the  trunk  with  an  axe,  soon  destroys  it. 

The  sap  is  collected  daily  with  buckets  which  are  carried 
on  the  neck  by  a  milk  man's  yoke  to  the  boilers ;  or  if 
the  quantity  be  great  and  remote  from  the  sugar  fires,  by  a 
hogshead  placed  on  a  sled,  with  a  large  hole  at  the  top  covered 
with  a  cloth  strainer,  or  a  tunnel  similarly  guarded,  is  inserted 
in  the  bunghole.  The  primitive  mode  of  arranging  the 
sugary,  is  with  large  receiving  troughs  placed  near  the  fires, 
capable  of  holding  several  hundred  gallons  of  sap,  and  the 
boiling  kettles  suspended  over  them  on  long  poles  supported 
by  crotches.  The  'process  of  sugar  making  we  shall  give  from 
the  statement  of  Mr.  Woodworth  of  Watcrtown,  N.  Y.  who 
obtained  the  premium  from  the  State  agricultural  society,  for 
the  best  sample  of  maple  sugar  exhibited  at  the  annual  fair 
of  1844.  The  committe  who  awarded  the  premium  say 
"  they  have  never  seen  so  fine  a  sample,  either  in  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  granulation  or  in  the  extent  to  which  the  refining 
process  has  been  carried ;  the  whole  coloring  matter  is  ex- 
tracted, and  the  peculiar  flavor  of  maple  sugar  is  completely 
eradicated,  leaving  the  sugar  fully  equal  to  the  double  refined 
cane  loaf  sugar  to  be  found  in  our  markets.'* 

The  statement  says :  "  in  the  first  place  I  make  my  buck- 
ets, tubs,  and  kettles,  all  perfectly  clean.  I  boil  the  sap  in  a 
potash  kettle,  set  in  an  arch  in  such  a  manner  that  the  edge 
of  the  kettle  is  defended  all  around  from  the  fire.  I  boil 
through  the  day,  taking  care  not  to  have  any  thing  in  the 
kettle  that  will  give  color  to  the  sap,  and  to  keep  it  well 
skimmed.  At  night  I  leave  fire  enough  under  the  kettle  to 
boil  the  sap  nearly  or  quite  to  syrup  by  the  next  morning.  I 
then  take  it  out  of  the  kettle  and  strain  it  through  a  flannel 
cloth  into  a  tub,  if  it  is  sweet  enough ;  if  not,  I  put  it  in  a 
caldron  kettle,  which  1  have  hung  on  a  pole  in  such  a  manner 
that  I  can  swing  it  on  and  ofl*  the  fire  at  pleasnre,  and  boil  it 
till  it  is  sweet  enough,  and  then  strain  it  into  the  tub  and  let 
it  stand  till  the  next  morning ;  I  then  take  it  and  the  syrup 
in  the  kettle  and  put  it  altogether  in  the  caldron  and  sugar  it 
offl  I  use  to  clarify,  say  100  lbs.  of  sugar,  the  whites  of  five 
or  six  egs^s,  well  beaten,*  about  one  quart  of  new  milk  and  a 


202  AMERICAN     AamCTTLTUKE. 

spoonful  of  salsRratus,  all  well  mixed  with. syrup  before  it  is 
scalding  hot.  I  then  make  and  keep  a  moderate  fire  directly 
under  the  caldron  until  the  scum  is  all  raised  ;  then  skim  it 
off  clean,  taking  care  not  to  let  it  boil  so  as  to  rise  in  the 
kettle  before  I  have  done  skimming  it.  I  then  sugar  it  off, 
leaving  it  so  damp  that  it  will  drain  a  little.  I  let  it  remain 
in  the  kettle  until  it  is  well  granulated.  I  then  put  it  into 
boxes,  made  smallest  at  the  bottom,  that  will  hold  from  50  to 
70  lbs.,  having  a  thin  piece  of  board  fitted  in  two  or  three 
inches  above  the  bottom,  which  is  bored  full  of  small  holes 
to  let  the  molasses  drain  through,  which  I  keep  drawn  off  by 
n,  tap  through  the  bottom.  I  put  on  the  top  of  the  sugar  in 
the  box  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  clear  damp  cloth,  and 
over  that  a  board  well  fitted  in  so  as  tov  exclude  the  air  from 
the  sugar.  After  it  has  done  or  near/)"  done  draining,  1  dis- 
solve it  and  sugar  it  off  again,  going  through  the  same  process 
in  clarifying  and  draining  as  before." 

When  sap  is  not  immediately  boiled,  a  small  addition  of 
lime  water  should  be  made  to  check  fermentation,  which  pre. 
vents  the  granulation  of  the  syrup.  A  single  tree  has  yielded 
in  one  day,  24  gallons  of  sap,  making  over  7  1-4  lbs,  of  sugar; 
and  in  one  season  it  made  33  lbs.  Trees  will  give  an  aver- 
age of  2  to  6  lbs.  in  a  single  season, 

TOBACCO  (Nicotiana. ) 

This  narcotic  is  a  native  of  North  America  and  has  been 
an  object  of  extensive  use  and  cultivation  in  this  country 
since  the  first  settlement  of  Virginia  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
16th  century.  It  formed  for  a  long  time  the  principal  export 
frf)m  that  colony  and  Maryland.  It  is  still  cultivated  there 
and  has  become  an  object  of  considerable  attention  in  the 
middle  and  western  states  and  to  some  extent  in  the  northern. 

The  Soil  may  be  a  light  loamy  sand,  or  it  may  be  allu- 
vial, well  drained  and  fertile,  new  land  free  of  weeds  and 
full  of  saline  matters  is  best  suited  to  it,  and  next  to  this  is  a 
rich  grass  sod  which  has  long  remained  untilled.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  in  beds  which  should  be  kept  clean,  as  the 
plant  is  small  and  slow  of  growth  in  the  early  stages  of  its 
existence  and  is  easily  smothered  by  weeds.  If  not  newly 
cleared,  the  land  should  be  burned  with  a  heavy  coating  of 
brush.  i- 

Cultivation — The  beds  should  be  well  pulverized,  and 
the  seed  sown  at  the  rate  of  a  table  spoonful  to  every  two 
square  rods.     The  seeds  are  so  minute,  that  sowing  evenly  is 


TOBACCO.  208 

scarcely  attainable,  unless  by  first  mixing  with  3  or  4  times 
its  bulk  of  fine  mold.  This  should  be  done  sufficiently  early 
to  secure  proper  maturity  to  the  plants  in  time  for  transplant- 
ing, (say  by  the  last  of  February  or  early  in  March  south  of 
the  Ohio,  and  about  the  first  of  April  north  of  it,)  covering 
lightly  and  completely  rolling  or  treading  down  the  earth. — 
The  plant  appears  in  15  or  20  days  and  will  be  fit  for  trans- 
planting in  six  or  eight  weeks.  This  should  be  done  in  damp 
weather,  and  the  plants  set  singly,  at  a  distance  of  2  J  to  3 
feet  each  way.  The  after  culture  is  like  that  of  corn,  and 
consists  in  frequently  stiring  the  ground,  with  the  plow  or 
cultivator  and  hoe,  and  keeping  down  weeds.  The  places  of 
such  plants  as  fail,  or  are  blighted,  should  be  at  once  filled 
up,  and  all  worms  destroyed. 

The  Priming,  Topping  and  Suckering  are  necessary 
operations.  The  first  consists  in  breaking  oflT  four  or  five  of 
the  leaves  next  the  ground  which  are  valueless  ;  the  second 
is  taking  oflT  the  top  to  prevent  the  seed  stalk  from  develop- 
ing, and  is  regulated  by  the  kind  of  tobacco.  "The  first 
topping  will  always  admit  of  a  greater  number  of  leaves  be- 
ing left ;  and  in  proportion  as  the  season  advances,  fewer 
leaves  should  be  left.  The  heavier  kinds  of  tobacco  are  gen- 
erally topped  early  in  the  season,  to  twelve  leaves,  then  to  ten 
and  still  later  to  eight.  The  lighter  kinds  are  topped  to  a 
gr-eater  number  of  leaves.  If  the  soil  is  light,  fewer  leaves 
should  be  left,"  (Beatty.)  Suckering  consists  in  breaking  ofl* 
the  young  side  shoots  which  should  be  done  immediately  after 
they  make  their  appearance. 

Harvesting  may  be  commenced  with  such  plants  as  have 
become  sufficiently  ripe,  which  is  indicated  by  greenish  yel- 
low spots  on  the  leaves.  This  will  generally  occur  in  August 
at  the  south,  and  in  September  at  the  north.  The  stem  of  the 
plant  is  cut  near  the  ground,  and  allowed  to  wilt,  but  not  ex- 
posed to  a  hot  sun.  If  there  is  danger  of  this,  it  should  be 
cut  only  in  the  morning  or  evening,  when  properly  wilted, 
which  will  be  in  a  few  hours,  it  may  be  carefully  carried  to 
the  drying  house,  where  it  should  be  hung  up  by  twine  tied 
to  the  butt  end  of  the  stalk,  and  suspended  over  poles,  at  dry- 
ing distances,  with  the  head  downwards.  The  circulation  of 
air  is  necessary  in  the  dry  houses,  but  there  must  be  entire 
safety  against  storms  or  winds,  as  the  leaves  are  liable  to 
break  by  agitation,  and  rain  seriously  injures  them.  When 
the  stem  in  the  leaf  has  become  hard,  it  is  suffiently  dried. 
This  takes  place  in  good  weather,  in  two  or  three  months, — 


204  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

The  leaves  may  be  stripped  in  damp  weather,  when  they  will 
not  crumble,  and  carefully  bound  in  small  bundles,  termed 
hands,  and  then  boxed  for  shipment. 

The  Varieties  of  tobacco  are  numerous,  not  less  than  12 
being  cultivated  in  America,  and  they  are  adapted  to  the  dif- 
ferent soils  and  climates  where  they  are  grown.  The  most 
fragrant  are  produced  in  Cuba,  and  are  almost  exclusively 
used  for  cigars.  They  command  several  times  the  price  of 
ordinary  kinds.  The  tobacco  of  Maryland  and  the  adjoining 
states  is  peculiarly  rich  and  high  flavored,  and  is  most  esteem- 
ed for  chewing. 

Much  of  the  peculiar  flavor  and  value  of  tobacco  depends 
on  the  soil,  and  the  preparation  or  sweating  of  the  plant  after 
drying.     The  former  should  not  be  too  rich,  and  never  highly 
manured,  as  the  flavor  is  thereby  materially  injured  though 
the  product  will  be  increased.     Yet  it  is  an  exhausting  crop, 
as  is  seen  by  the  large  quantity  and  the  analysis  of  the  ash, 
and  the  soil  requires  a  constant  renewal  of  well  fermented 
manures,  and  particularly  the  saline  ingredients,  to  prevent 
exhaustion.     Tobacco  contains  nitrogen  and  the  alkalies  in 
large  quantities,  and  but  very  little  of  the  phosphates.     The 
ash  is  shown  in  the  analysis  of  Fresenius  and  Will,  to  consist, 
of  potash,  30.67 ;    lime,  (mostly,  with  a  little   magnesia,) 
33.36  ;  g}T)sum5.60  ;  common  salt,  5.95  ;  phosphates,  6.03  ; 
silica,  18.39,  in  100  parts  of  the  ash.     The  inferior  kinds 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  lime  ;  and  the  superior,  the  lar- 
gest of  potash.     The  customary  method  of  burning  fuel  on 
the  beds  designed  for  tobacco,  and  the  use  of  freshly  cleared  and 
burnt  lands,  by  which  the  largest  crops  of  the  best  quality  are 
obtained,  shows  conclusively  the  proper  treatment  required. 
By  each  of  these  operations,  the  ground  is  not  only  loosened 
in  the  best  possible  manner,  and  all  insects  and  weeds  de- 
stroyed, but  tlie  sallSf  and  especially  potash,  are  produced  in 
the  greatest  abundance.     Some  of  the  best  soils  in  Virginia 
have  been  ruined  by  a  constant  succession  of  tobacco  crops, 
the  necessary  result  of  neglect  in  supplying  them  with  the 
constituents  of  fertility  so  largely  abstracted.     The  yield  per 
acre  is  generally  from  1500  to  2500  lbs.,  and  it  is  a  profita- 
ble crop  when  the  best  kinds  are  properly  cultivated,  under 
favorable  circumstances  of  soil,  climate,  &c.     The  total  esti-  ^ 
mated  product  of  the  United  States  for  1843,  was  over  185,-  "* 
000,000.  lbs.  of  which  Kentucky  furnished  52,000,000,  and 
Virginia  nearly  42,000,000  lbs.     Missouri,  Ohio,  and  other 
states  are  rapidly  becoming  large  producers. 


INDIGO.  205 

1  N  D I  D  O  (Indigofera  tinctoria) 

Was  formerly  cultivated  at  the  South  to  a  limited  degree,  but 
the  introduction  of  cotton  and  the  great  profits  which  it 
yielded,  and  its  consequent  rapid  extension,  drove  the  culture 
of  indigo  on  to  foreign  soils.  But  the  decline  in  the  price  of 
cotton  from  large  production  and  the  increasing  consumption 
of  indigo  in  this  country,  together  with  the  diminished  price 
of  other  southern  staples,  will  probably  again  make  it  an  ob- 
ject of  agricultural  attention  in  those  states  where  the  soil 
and  climate  are  suited  to  it.  We  have  no  detailed  history  of 
its  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  and  we  quote  from  Lou- 
don.  He  says  "  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  in 
Hindostan,  because  labor  and  land  here  are  cheaper  than  any 
where  else  ;  and  because  the  raising  of  the  plant  and  its  man- 
ufacture may  be  carried  on  without  even  the  aid  of  a  house. 
The  first  step  in  the  culture  of  the  plant  is  to  render  the 
ground,  which  should  be  friable  and  rich,  perfectly  free  from 
weeds  and  dry,  if  naturally  moist.  The  seeds  are  then  sown 
in  shallow  drills  about  a  foot  apart.  The  rainy  season  must 
be  chosen  for  sowing,  otherwise,  if  the  seed  is  deposited  in 
dry  soil,  it  heats,  corrupts,  and  is  lost.  The  crop  being  kept 
clear  of  weeds  is  fit  for  cutting  in  two  or  three  months,  and 
this  may  be  repeated  in  rainy  seasons  every  six  weeks.  The 
plants  must  not  be  allowed  to  come  into  flower,  as  the  leaves 
in  that  case  become  dry  and  hard,  and  the  indigo  produced  is 
of  less  value  ;  nor  must  they  be  cut  in  diy  weather,  as  they 
would  not  spring  again.  A  crop  generally  lasts  two  years. 
Being  cut,  the  herb  is  first  steeped  in  a  vat  till  it  has  become 
macerated,  and  has  parted  with  its  coloring  matter  ;  then  the 
liquor  is  let  off  into  another,  in  which  it  undergoes  the  pe- 
culiar  process  of  beating,  to  cause  the  fecula  to  separate  from 
the  water.  This  fecula  is  let  off  into  a  third  vat,  where  it 
remains  some  time,  and  is  then  strained  through  cloth  bags, 
and  evaporated  in  shallow  wooden  boxes  placed  in  the  shade. 
Before  it  is  perfectly  dry  it  is  cut  in  small  pieces  of  an  inch 
square  ;  it  is  then  packed  in  barrels,  or  sowed  up  in  sacks,  for 
sale." 

Indigo  can  only  be  raised  to  advantage  in  our  most  south- 
ern states.  The  soil  requires  to  be  dry,  finely  pulverized  and 
rich.  The  seed  is  sown  early  in  April,  in  drills  about  18  in- 
ches apart,  and  the  weeds  are  kept  down  by  the  hoe.  It 
should  be  cut  with  a  sickle  or  scythe,  when  the  lower  leaves 
begin  to  turn,  and  just  before  the  plant  is  going  into  flower. 


206  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

This  period  occurs  in  this  country  about  the  middle  of  sum- 
mer. A  second  crop  may  be  taken  the  first  of  autumn,  and 
in  hotter  climates  even  a  third  one. 

The  Baton  Rouge  Advocate  of  1844  says,  an  acre  in  that 
district  will  raise  fi'om  40  to  60  lbs.  of  indigo  not  inferior  to 
the  best  Carraccas,  selling  at  $2  per  lb.  It  takes  only  from  July 
10  October  to  mature,  and  it  does  not  demand  one  third  of  the 
time  or  expense  for  raising  as  that  of  a  cotton  crop.  The 
consumption  of  indigo  in  this  country  already  amounts  to  be- 
tween  two  and  three  millions  of  dollars  annually.  There 
are  several  varieties  indigenous  to  the  Southern  States,  and  one 
or  more  in  the  Northern  which  yield  inferior  dye. 

MADDER  (Eubia  tinctorum) 

Used  for  several  dyes,  but  principally  for  the  rich  madder  red, 
has  been  recently  an  object  of  attention  in  the  United  States. 
The  introduction  of  this  with  numerous  other  articles  conse- 
quent upon  the  extended  growth  of  our  manufactures,  shows 
the  intimate  and  mutually  beneficial  effects  of  associating  the 
two  leading  industrial  occupations  of  agriculture  and  manu- 
factures. The  principal  cause  which  has  prevented  its  culti- 
vation among  us  thus  far,  has  been  the  long  time  required 
tor  maturing  a  crop.  We  subjoin  a^description  of  its  culture 
from  Mr.  Bateham. 

Soil  and  preparation. — "  The  soil  should  be  a  deep, 
rich,  sandy  loam,  free  from  weeds,  roots,  stones,  &;c.,  and 
containing  a  good  portion  of  vegetable  earth.  Alluvial  bot- 
tom land  is  the  most  suitable  ;  but  it  must  not  be  wet.  If  old 
upland  is  used,  it  should  receive  a  heavy  coating  of  vegetable 
earth,  (from  decayed  wood  and  leaves.)  The  land  should  be 
plowed  very  deep  in  the  fall,  and  early  in  the  spring  apply 
about  one  hundred  loads  of  well  rotted  manure  per  acre, 
spread  evenly,  and  plowed  in  deeply ,  then  harrow  till  quite 
fine  and  free  from  lumps.  Next,  plow  the  land  into  beds 
four  feet  wide,  leaving  alleys  between,  three  feet  wide,  then 
harrow  the  beds  with  a  fine  light  harrow,  or  rake  them  by 
hand  so  as  to  leave  them  smooth,  and  even  with  the  alleys ; 
they  are  then  ready  for  planting. 

Preparing  sets  and  planting. — Madder  sets,  or  seed 
roots,  are  best  selected  when  the  crop  is  dug  in  the  fall.  The 
horizontal  uppermost  roots  (with  eyes)  are  the  kind  to  b^ 
used ;  these  should  be  separated  from  the  bottom  roots,  and 
buried  in  sand,  in  a  cellar  or  pit.  If  not  done  in  the  fall, 
the  sets  may  be  dug  early  in  the  spring,  before  they  begin  to 


MADDEB.  207 

sprout.  They  should  be  cut  or  broken  into  pieces,  contain- 
ing from  two  to  five  eyes  each;  i.  e.  three  to  four  inches 
long.  The  time  for  planting  is  as  early  in  spring  as  the 
ground  can  be  got  in  good  order,  and  severe  frosts  are  over, 
which,  in  this  climate,  is  usually  about  the  middle  of  April. 
With  the  beds  prepared  as  directed,  stretch  a  line  lengthwise 
tiie  bed,  and  with  the  corner  of  a  hoe  make  a  drill  two  in- 
ches deep  along  each  edge  and  down  the  middle,  so  as  to 
give  three  rows  to  each  bed,  about  two  feet  apart.  Into 
these  drills  drop  the  sets,  ten  inches  apart,  covering  them 
two  inches  deep.  Eight  or  ten  bushels  of  sets  are  requisite 
for  an  acre. 

After  culture. — As  soon  as  the  madder  plants  can  be 
seen,  the  ground  should  be  carefully  hoed,  so  as  to  destroy  the 
weeds  and  not  injure  the  plants  ;  and  the  hoeing  and  weed- 
ing  must  be  repeated  as  often  as  weeds  make  their  appear- 
ance. If  any  of  the  sets  have  failed  to  grow,  the  vacancies 
should  be  filled  by  taking  up  parts  of  the  strongest  roots  and 
transplanting  them  ;  this  is  best  done  in  June.  As  soon  as 
the  madder  plants  are  ten  or  twelve  inches  high,  the  tops  are 
to  be  bent  down  on  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  all  ex- 
cept the  tip  end,  covered  with  earth  shoveled  from  the  middle 
of  the  alleys.  Bend  the  shoots  outward  and  inward,  in 
every  direction,  so  as  in  time  to  fill  all  the  vacant  spac  e  on 
the  beds,  and  about  one  foot  on  each  side.  After  the  first 
time  covering,  repeat  the  weeding  when  necessary,  and  run  a 
single  horse  plow  through  the  alleys  several  times  to  keep 
the  earth  clean  and  mellow.  As  soon  as  the  plants  again  be- 
come ten  or  twelve  inches  high,  bend  down  and  cover  them  as 
before,  repeating  the  operation  as  oflen  as  necessary,  which 
is  commonly  three  times  the  first  season.  The  last  time  may 
be  as  late  as  September,  or  later  if  no  frosts  occur.  By  cov- 
ering the  tops  in  this  manner,  they  change  to  roots,  and  the 
design  is  to  fill  the  ground  as  full  of  roots  as  possible.  When 
the  vacant  spaces  are  all  full,  there  will  be  but  little  chance 
for  weeds  to  grow  ;  but  all  that  appear  must  be  pulled  out. 

The  second  year. — Keep  the  beds  free  from  weeds  ; 
plow  the  alleys  and  cover  the  tops,  as  before  directed,  two  or 
three  times  during  the  season.  The  alleys  will  now  form 
deep  and  narrow  ditches,  and  if  it  becomes  difficult  to  obtain 
good  earth  for  covering  the  tops,  that  operation  may  be  omit- 
ted after  the  second  time  this  season.  Care  should  be  taken, 
when  covering  the  tops,  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  beds  as 


208  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Iiigh  as  the  middle  ;  otherwise  the  water  from  heavy  show- 
ers will  run  off,  and  the  crop  suffer  from  drought. 

The  third  year. — Very  little  labor  or  attention  is  re- 
quired. The  plants  will  now  cover  the  whole  ground.  If 
any  weeds  are  seen,  they  must  be  pulled  out ;  otherwise  their 
roots  will  cause  trouble  when  harvesting  the  madder.  The 
crop  is  sometimes  dug  the  third  year  ;  and  if  the  soil  and 
cultivation  have  been  good,  and  the  seasons  warm  and  favor- 
able,  the  madder  will  be  of  good  quality ;  but  generally,  it 
is  much  better  in  quality,  and  more  in  quantity,  when  left  un- 
til the  fourth  year. 

Digging  and  harvesting. — This  should  be  done  be- 
tween  the  20th  of  August  and  the  20th  of  September.  Take 
a  sharp  shovel  or  shovels,  and  cut  off  and  remove  the  tops 
with  half  an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  then  take  a 
plow  of  the  largest  size,  with  a  sharp  coulter  and  a  double 
team,  and  plow  a  furrow  outward,  beam-deep,  around  the 
edge  of  the  bed  ;  stir  the  earth  with  forks,  and  carefully  pick 
out  all  the  roots,  removing  the  earth  from  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  ;  then  plow  another  furrow  beam-deep,  as  before,  and 
pick  over  and  remove  the  earth  in  the  same  manner  ;  thus 
proceeding  until  the  whole  is  completed. 

Washing  and  drying. — As  soon  as  possible  after  dig- 
ging, take  the  roots  to  some  mnning  stream  to  be  washei 
If  there  is  no  running  stream  convenient,  it  can  be  done  at  a 
pump.  Take  large,  round  sieves,  two  and  a  half  or  three 
feet  in  diameter,  with  the  wire  about  as  fine  as  wheat  sieves  ; 
or  if  these  cannot  be  had,  get  from  a  hardware  store  suffi- 
cient screen-wire  of  the  right  fineness,  and  make  frames  or 
boxes  about  two  and  a  half  feet  long  and  the  width  of  the 
wire,  on  the  bottom  of  which  nail  the  wire.  In  these  sieves 
or  boxes,  put  half  a  bushel  of  roois  at  a  time  and  stir  them 
about  in  the  water,  pulling  the  bunches  apart  so  as  to  wash 
them  clean  ;  then,  having  a  platform  at  hand,  lay  them  on  it 
to  dry.  (To  make  the  platform,  take  two  or  three  common 
boards,  so  as  to  be  about  four  feet  in  width,  and  nail  elects 
across  the  under  side.)  On  these  spread  the  roots  about  two 
inches  thick  for  drying  in  the  sun.  Carry  the  platforms  to  a 
convenient  place,  not  far  from  the  house,  and  place  them  side 
by  side,  in  rows  east  and  west,  and  with  their  ends  north  and 
south,  leaving  room  to  walk  between  the  rows.  Elevate  the 
south  ends  of  the  platforms  about  eighteen  inches,  and  the 
north  ends  about  six  inches  from  the  ground,  putting  poles  or 
sticks  to  support  them — ^this  will   greatly  facilitate  drying. 


IrTADDri?.  209 

After  the  second  or  third  day  drying,  the  madder  must  be 
protected  from  the  dews  at  night,  and  from  rain  placing  the 
plattbrms  one  upon  another  to  a  convenient  height,  and 
covering  the  uppermost  one  with  boards.  Spread  them  oul 
again  in  the  morning,  or  as  soon  as  the  danger  is  over.  Five 
or  six  days  of  ordinarily  fine  weather  will  dry  the  maddei- 
Bufficiently,  when  it  may  be  put  away  till  it  is  convenient  to 
kiln-dry  and  grind  it. 

KiLN-DRYixG. — The  size  and  mode  of  constructing  the 
kiln  may  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances.  The  following  is 
a  very  cheap  plan,  and  sufficient  to  dry  one  ton  of  roots  at  a 
time.  Place  four  strong  posts  in  the  ground,  twelve  Ceoi 
apart  one  v/ay,  and  eighteen  the  other  ;  the  front  two  four- 
teen feet  high,  and  the  others  eighteen  ;  put  girts  across  the 
])ottom,  middle  and  top  ;  and  nail  boards  perpendicularly  on 
the  outsi'Je  as  for  a  common  barn.  The  boards  must  be  well- 
seasoned,  and  all  cracks  or  holes  should  be  plastered  or  other- 
wise stopped  up.  Make  a  shed-roof  of  common  boards.  In 
the  inside  put  upright  standards  about  live  feet  apart,  with 
cross-pieces,  to  support  the  scaffolding.  The  first  cross- 
pieces  to  be  four  feet  from  the  floor  ;  the  next  two  feet  higher, 
and  so  on  to  the  top.  On  these  cross-pieces,  lay  small  poles 
about  six  feet  long  and  two  inches  thick,  four  or  five  inches 
apart.  On  these  scaffolds  the  madder  is  to  be  spread  nine  in- 
ches  thick.  A  floor  is  laid  at  the  bottom,  to  keep  all  dry  and 
clean.  When  the  kiln  is  filled,  take  six  or  eight  small  kettles 
or  hand  furnaces,  and  place  them  four  or  five  feet  apart  on 
the  floor,  (iirst  securing  it  from  fire  with  bricks  or  stones,) 
and  make  fires  in  them  with  charcoal,  being  careful  not  to 
make  any  of  the  fires  so  large  as  to  scorch  the  madder  over 
them.  A  person  must  be  in  constant  attendance  to  watch  and 
replenish  the  fires.  The  lieat  will  ascend  through  the  whole, 
and  in  ten  or  tw^elve  hours  it  will  all  be  sullicientiy  dried, 
which  is  known  by  its  becoming  brittle  like  pipe-stems. 

Breaking  and  GRixniNG. — Immediately  after  being 
dj'ied,  the  madder  must  be  taken  to  the  barn  and  threshed 
with  flails,  or  broken  by  machinery,  (a  mill  might  easily  be 
constructed  for  this  purpose,)  So  that  it  will  feed  in  a  common 
grist  mill.  If  it  is  not  broken  and  ground  immediately,  it 
will  gather  dampness  so  as  to  prevent  its  grinding  freely. 
Any  comm.on  grist-mill  can  grind  madder  properly.  When 
ground  finely  it  is  fit  for  use,  and  may  be  packed  in  barrels 
like  flour  for  market.'' 


210  AMERICAN    AGRICTTLTITRF. 

Mr.  Swift  of  Ohio  has  raised  2000  bbls.  per  acre  in  one 
crop  of  four  years  growth,  at  a  nctt  profit  iackidingall  charges 
of  rent  dsc,  of  $200  per  acre.  The  roots  of  madder  are 
also  a  good  food  for  cattle,  but  t!ie  expense  and  delay  of  pro- 
ducing it  unfit  it  for  this  use  among  us. 

W  O  A  D  {Tsatis  tinctorin) 

Is  considerably  used  in  this  country  for  dyeing  and  generally 
as  a  base  for  blues,  blacks  and  some  other  colors,  and  for 
these  it  supplies  the  place  of  indigo.  There  are  several  vari- 
eties of  woad,  but  the  common  biennial  plant  is  the  only  one 
cultivated.     Loudon  says — 

"  The  soil  for  woad  should  be  deep  and  perfectly  fresh, 
such  as  those  of  the  rich,  mellow,  loamy,  and  deep  vegetable 
kind.  Where  this  culture  is  carried  to  a  considerable  degree 
of  perfection,  the  deep,  rich,  putrid,  alluvial  soils  on  the  flat 
tracts  extending  upon  the  borders  of  the  large  rivers,  are 
chiefly  employed  for  the  growth  of  this  sort  of  crop;  and  it 
has  been  shown  by  repeated  trials  that  it  answers  most  per- 
fectly when  they  are  broken  up  for  it  immediately,  from  a 
state  of  sward. 

The  'preparation  of  the  soil,  when  woad  is  to  be  grown  on 
grass  land,  may  either  be  eflfected  by  deep  plowings,  with 
the  aid  of  the  winter's  frost,  cross  plowing  and  harrowing  in 
spring  ;  by  deep  plowing  and  harrowing  in  spring ;  by  paring 
and  burning  ;  or  by  trench-plowing,  or  spade-trenching.  The 
first  mode  appears  the  worst,  as  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  re- 
duce old  turf  in  one  year,  and,  even  if  this  is  done,  the  danger 
from  the  grub  and  wire-worm  is  a  sufficient  arginnent  against 
it.  By  plowing  deep  in  February,  and  soon  afterwards  sow- 
ing,  the  plants  may  geminate  before  the  grub  is  able  to  rise 
to  the  surface  ;  by  trench-plowing,  the  same  purpose  will  be 
better  attained  ;  and,  best  of  all,  by  spade-trenching.  But  a 
method  equally  eff*ectual  with  the  first,  more  expeditious,  and 
more  destructive  to  grubs,  insects,  and  otiier  vermin,  which 
are  apt  to  feed  on  the  plants  in  their  early  growth,  is  that  of 
paring  and  burning.  This  is,  however,  chiefly  practised 
where  the  sward  is  rough  and  abounds  with  rushes,  sedge, 
and  other  plants  of  the  coarse  kind,  but  it  might  be  had  Re- 
course to  on  others,  with  benefit. 

The  3I0DE  OF  sowing  is  generally  broad-cast,  but  the 
plant  might  be  most  advantageously  grown  in  rows  and  cul- 
tivated with  the  horse-hoe.  The  rows  may  be  nine  inches  or 
a  foot  apart,  and  the  seed  deposited  two  inches  deep.     The 


wo  AT).  2ll 

cjuantity  of  seed  for  the  broad-cast  method  is  five  or  six  lbs. 
to  the  acre  ;  for  the  drill  mode,  tv\  o  pounds  are  more  than 
sufficient,  the  seed  being  smaller  tiian  that  of  the  turnep. 
New  seed,  where  it  can  be  procured,  should  always  be  sown 
in  preference  to  old  ;  but,  when  of  the  latter  kind,  it  should 
l>e  steeped  for  sometime  before  it  is  put  into  the  ground. — 
The  time  of  sowing  may  be  extended  from  February  to  July. 
Early  sowing,  however,  is  to  be  preferred,  as  in  that  case  the 
plants  come  up  stronger  and  aflord  more  produce  the  first 
season.  The  after  culture  of  the  woad  consists  in  hoeing, 
thinning,  prong-stirring,  and  weeding,  which  operations  may 
be  practised  l)y  hand  or  horse  tools,  as  in  the  culture  of  teazle. 

Gatiieiiixg  the  crops. — The  leaves  of  the  spring-sown 
plants  will  generally  be  ready  towards  the  lattt^r  end  of  June 
pr  beginning  of  July,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  sea- 
son and  climate  ;  the  leaves  of  those  put  in  at  a  later  period 
in  the  summer  are  often  fit  to  be  gathered  earlier.  This  bu- 
siness  should,  however,  constantly  be  executed  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  are  fully  grown,  while  they  retain  their  perfect  green 
color  and  are  highly  succulent ;  as  when  they  are  let  remain 
till  they  begin  to  turn  pale,  much  of  their  goodness  is  said  to 
be  expended,  and  they  become  less  in  quantity,  and  of  an  infe- 
rior quality  for  the  purposes  of  the  dyer.  Where  the  lands  are 
well  managed  they  will  often  afford  two  or  three  gatherings, 
but  the  best  cultivators  seldom  take  more  than  two,  which  are 
sometimes  mixed  together  in  the  manufacturing.  It  is  ne- 
cessary that  the  after-croppings,  when  they  are  taken,  should 
be  constantly  kept  separate  from  the  others,  as  they  would 
injure  the  whole  if  blended,  and  considerably  diminish  the 
value  of  the  produce.  It  is  said  that  the  best  method,  where  a 
third  cropping  is  either  wholly  or  partially  made,  is  to  keep  it 
separate,  forming  it  into  an  inferior  kind  of  woad.  In  the 
execution  of  this  sort  of  business,  a  number  of  baskets  are 
usually  provided  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  crop,  and 
into  these  the  leaves  are  thrown  as  they  are  taken  from  the 
plants.  The  leaves  are  detached  from  the  plants,  by  grasp- 
ing  them  firmly  with  the  hand,  and  giving  them  a  sort  of  a 
sudden  twist.  In  favorable  seasons,  where  the  soils  are  rich, 
the  plants  will  often  rise  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches ; 
but  in  other  circumstances,  they  seldom  attain  more  than  four 
or  five. 

The  produce  is  mostly  from  about  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half 
of  green  leaves.  The  price  varies  considerably;  but  for 
woad  of  the  prime  quality,  it  is  oflen  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 


212  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

pounds*  the  ton,  and  for  that  of  an  mferior  quality  six  or 
seven,  and  sometimes  much  more. 

To  prepare  it  for  the  dyer,  it  is  bruised  by  machinery  to 
(jxpress  the  watery  part ;  it  is  afterwards  formed  into  balls 
and  fermented,  re-ground,  and  fermented  in  vats,  where  it  is 
evaporated  into  cakes  in  the  manner  of  indigo.  The  haulm 
i*^  burned  for  manure  or  spread  over  the  straw-yard,  to  be  fer- 
mented along  wilh  straw-dung.  To  save  seed,  leave  some  of 
the  plants  undenuded  of  their  leaves  the  second  year,  and 
when  it  is  ripe,  in  July  or  Atigust,  treat  itlike  turnep-seed. — 
The  only  diseases  to  which  the  woad  is  liable  are  the  mildew 
and  rust.  When  young  it  is  often  attacked  by  the  fly,  and 
the  ground  obliged  to  be  resown,  and  this  more  than  once 
even  on  winter-plowed  grasslands." 

WELD    OR    DYERS'S    W  EED .  (Reseda  luteola.) 

Weld  is  much  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  various  fabrics 
as  a  dye.  It  has  not  to  our  knowledge  been  cultivated  in 
this  country.  We  again  quote  from  Loudon  :  "  Weld  is  an 
imperfect  biennial,  with  small  fusiform  roots,  and  a  leafy 
stem  from  one  to  three  feet  in  height.  It  is  a  native  of  Brh- 
ain,  flowers  in  June  and  July,  and  ripens  its  seeds  in  August 
and  September.  Its  culture  may  be  considered  the  same  as 
that  of  woad,  only  being  a  smaller  plant  it  is  not  thinned  out 
to  so  great  a  distance.  It  has  this  advantage  for  the  farmer 
over  all  other  coloring  plants,  that  it  only  requires  to  be  taken 
up  and  dried,  when  it  is  fit  for  the  dyer.  It  is,  however,  an 
exhausting  crop. 

Weld  will  grow  on  any  soil,  but  fertile  loams  produce  the 
best  crops.  The  soil  being  brought  to  a  fine  tilth,  the  seed  is 
sown  in  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  generally  broad-cast. 
The  quantity  of  seed  is  from  two  quarts  to  a  gallon  per  acre, 
and  it  should  either  be  fresh,  or,  if  two  or  three  years  old, 
Mecped  a  few  days  in  water  previously  to  being  sown.  Being 
a  biennial,  and  no  advantage  obtained  from  it  the  first  year, 
it  is  sometimes  sown  with  grain  crops  in  the  manner  of  clo- 
ver,  which,  when  the  soil  is  in  a  very  rich  state,  may  answer, 
provided  that  hoeing,  weeding  and  stirring  take  place  as  soon 
as  the  grain  crop  is  cut.  Tlie  best  crops,  however,  will  o^ 
viously  be  the  result  of  drilling  and  cultivating  the  crop  alone. 
The  drills  may  be  a  foot  asunder,  and  the  plants  thinned  to 
six  inches  in  the  row.     In  the  broad-cast  mode,  it  is  usual  to 

"^  rhe  pound  sterling  may  be  reckoned  at  about  $5. 


WELD.  213 

thin  them  to  six  or  eight  inches'  distance  every  way.  Often, 
when  weld  succeeds  grain  crops,  it  is  never  either  thinned, 
weeded,  or  hoed,  but  left  to  itself  till  the  plants  are  in  full 
blossom. 

The  crop  is  taken  by  pulling  up  the  entire  plant ;  and 
the  proper  period  for  this  purpose  is  when  the  bloom  has 
been  produced  the  whole  length  of  the  stems,  and  the  plants 
are  just  beginning  to  turn  of  a  light  or  yellowish  color  ;  as 
m  the  beginning  or  middle  of  July  in  the  second  year.  The 
plants  are  usually  from  one  foot  to  two  feet  and  a  half  in 
height.  It  is  thought  by  some  advantageous  to  pull  it  rather 
early,  without  waiting  for  the  ripening  of  the  seeds ;  as  by 
this  means  there  will  not  only  be  the  greatost  proportion  of 
dye,  but  the  land  will  be  left  at  liberty  for  the  reception  of  a 
crop  of  wheat  or  turneps ;  in  this  case,  a  small  part  must  be 
left  solely  for  the  purpose  of  seed.  In  the  execution  of  the 
work,  the  plants  are  drawn  up  by  the  roots  in  small  hand- 
fuls  ;  and  after  each  handful  had  been  tied  up  with  one  of  the 
stalks,  they  are  set  up  in  fours  in  an  an  erect  position,  and 
left  to  dry.  Sometimes,  however,  they  become  sufficiently 
dry  by  turning  without  being  set  up.  After  they  have  re^ 
mained  till  fully  dry,  which  is  mostly  effected  in  the  course  of 
a  week  or  two,  they  are  bound  up  into  larger  bundles,  each 
containing  sixty  handfuls,  and  weighing  fifty-six  pounds,— 
Sixty  of  these  bundles  constitute  a  load,  and  in  places  where 
this  kind  of  crop  is  much  grown,  are  tied  up  by  a  string  made 
for  the  purpose,  which  is  sold  under  the  title  of  weld-cord. 

The  produce  or  weld  depends  much  on  the  nature  of 
the  season  ;  but  from  half  a  load  to  a  load  and  a  half  per  acre 
is  the  quantity  most  commonly  afforded.  It  is  usually  sold 
to  the  dyers  at  from  five  or  six  to  ten  or  twelve  pounds  the 
load,  and  sometimes  at  considerably  more.  It  is  mostly 
bought  by  persons  who  afterwards  dispose  of  it  to  the  dyers. 
The  demand  for  it  is  sometimes  very  little,  while  at  others  it 
is  so  great  as  to  raise  the  price  to  a  high  degree.  It  is  some- 
times gathered  green  and  treated  like  woad  or  indigo  ;  but  in 
general  the  dried  herb  is  used  by  the  dyers  in  a  state  of  de- 
coction. 

The  use  of  weld  in  dyeing  is  for  giving  a  yellow  coJor 
to  cotton,  woollen,  mohair,  silk  and  linen.  Blue  cloths  are 
dipped  in  a  decoction  of  it,  which  renders  them  green ;  and 
the  yellow  color  of  the  paint  called  Dutch  pink  is  obtained 
from  weld.  To  save  seed,  select  a  few  of  the  largest  and 
healthiest  plants,  and  leave  them  to  ripen.     The  seed  is  easily 


214  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

separated.  The  chief  disease  of  weld  is  the  mildew,  to 
which  it  is  very  liable  when  young,  and  this  is  the  reason 
that  it  is  often  sown  with  other  crops." 

SUMACH.  (Rhus glabrum,  R.  coriarin  and  R.  cotinvs.) 

The  Rhus  Glabrum  is  the  common  sumach  of  the  United 
States  which  grows  spontaneously  on  fertile  soils.  It  is  con- 
siderably used  by  dyers,  and  the  tanners  of  light  leather. 
It  is  however  much  inferior  to  the  R.  Coriaria  or  Sicilian 
sumach,  which  is  imported  into  this  country  from  Spain, 
Portugal,  Sicily,  Syria  and  elsewhere,  and  sells  at  from  ^50 
to  «S120  per  ton.  It  is  a  dwarf,  bushy  shrub,  smaller  than 
the  American,  but  with  much  larger  leaves.  These  with 
the  seed  cones  and  young  stems  are  all  used  by  the  manu- 
facturers. The  R.  cotinus  or  Venice  sumach,  is  the  fringe 
tree  or  burning  bush,  a  shrub  for  ornamental  grounds,  bear- 
ing a  flossy,  drab-colored  blossom.  It  is  known  in  England 
as  young  fustic,  and  is  much  used  in  the  arts. 

Cultivation  and  Treatment. — All  the  sumachs  are 
propagated  by  layers,  though  it  is  probable  they  might,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  be  raised  from  the  seed.  On  good 
soils  they  grow  in  great  profusion.  The  harvesting  consists 
simply  in  cutting  otf  the  young  branches  with  the  leaves  and 
seed  cones  attached,  in  clear  weather,  drying  them  thoroughly 
without  exposure  to  either  rain  or  dew,  and  packing  them  iii 
bales  of  about  160  lbs.  for  market. 

The  sumach  is  highly  astringent,  often  taking  the  place 
of  galls.  This  quality  is  much  enhanced  by  warmth  of  cli- 
mate ;  and  the  most  valuable  article  is  brought  from  the  most 
southern  regions.  There  is  no  doubt  this  species  of  plants 
might  be  cultivated  with  great  profit  in  the  southern  states, 
and  thus  save  the  large  amount  annually  expended  in  its 
rmportat  ion,  which  is  constantly  increasing.  The  total 
importation  is  now  estimated  at  between  one  and  two  millions 
of  dollars  per  annum. 

THE  TEASEL  OR  FULLER'S  THISTLE  (Dipsacus  fullontm) 

Is  another  article  exclusively  used  by  the  manufacturers,  f^r 
the  purpose  of  raising  a  nap,  or  combing  out  the  fibres  upon 
the  dressed  surface  of  woolen  cloth  or  flannels.  The  con- 
sumption cannot  of  course  be  extensive,  being  limited  exclu- 
sively to  this  demand.  There  is  but  one  kind  cultivated. 
A  bastard  variety  of  spontaneous  growth  exists  in  portions 


MUSTABD.  215 

of  our  middle  states  which  resembles  the  useful  teasel,  with 
this  peculiar  difference,  that  the  ends  of  the  awns  or  chaff 
on  the  heads  are  straight  instead  of  hooked,  which  renders 
them  perfectly  useless. 

Cultivation. — The  teasel  is  a  biennial,  requiring  two 
years  to  mature.  It  is  sown  on  a  deep  loamy  clay,  previ- 
ously well  plowed  and  harrowed,  in  drills  20  inches  asunder, 
leaving  a  plant  in  every  10  inches,  or  in  hills  about  16 
inches  apart.  The  ground  should  be  kept  light  by  occa- 
sional stirring,  and  free  from  weeds.  The  plants  are  gene- 
rally stronger  and  more  thrifty  if  allowed  to  mature  where 
sown,  and  to  accomplish  this,  the  intermediate  spaces  between 
the  hills  may  be  annually  planted  with  new  seed.  Many 
adopt  the  plan  of  sowing  in  beds  and  transplanting. — 
Although  hardy,  there  is  sometimes  an  advantage  in  cover- 
ing the  beds  which  contain  the  young  plants  with  straw 
during  the  winter. 

Gathering. — Those  intended  for  use  should  be  cut  with 
a  stem  eight  inches  long  below  the  head,  just  as  it  is  going 
out  of  flower  when  the  awns  are  the  toughest ;  and  as  these 
come  into  maturity  at  different  times  in  the  same  plant,  they 
should  be  cut  successively  as  they  come  forward.  Those 
intended  for  seed,  which  should  always  be  the  largest,  strong- 
est heads,  must  be  suffered  to  remain  till  ripe,  when  they 
can  be  gathered  and  threshed  with  the  flail.  The  others 
should  be  thinly  spread  and  dried  under  cover  where  no 
moisture  can  reach  them.  They  may  then  be  assorted  into 
three  parcels  according  to  size  and  quality  and  packed  in 
large  sacks,  when  they  are  ready  for  market.  The  crop  on 
good  soils  well  cultivated,  may  be  stated  at  150,000  to  200,000 
per  acre,  worth  from  $1.50  to  $2.50  per  1000. 

MUSTARD. 

There  are  two  species  of  mustard  used  for  field  cultiva- 
tion ;  tlie  white  {Sinapis  alba^)  and  iJie  black  (<S.  nigra f)  the 
last  of  which  is  generally  raised.  It  requires  a  rich  loamy 
soil,  deeply  plowed  and  well  harrowed.  It  may  be  sown, 
either  broadcast,  in  drills  about  two  feet  apart,  or  in  hills. 
Mr.  Parmelee  of  Ohio  thus  raised  on  27  acres,  23,850  lbs., 
which  brought  in  the  Philadelphia  market,  $2,908  ;  an  ave- 
rage of  over  $100  per  acre.  The  ground  on  which  it  is 
planted  must  be  frequently  stirred,  and  kept  clear  of  weeds. 
When  matured,  it  should  be  carefully  cut  with  the  scythe 


2l6  AMERICAN    A(^RICULTUEE. 

or  sicklej  and  if  so  ripe  as  to  shell,  laid  into  a  wagon  box 
with  tight  canvass  over  the  bottom  and  sides,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent waste.  As  soon  as  it  is  perfectly  dry,  it  may  be  threshed 
and  cleaned  when  it  is  ready  for  market. 

The  mustard  is  a  valuable  crop  for  green  food  for  cattle 
oi:  sheep,  or  for  plowing  in  as  a  fertilizer.  The  following 
experiment  was  made  by  jMr.  Gray  in  England  in  1844,  an 
account  of  which  appears  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society.  He  says  : — "  The  land  on  which  it  is 
growing  is  a  thin  stone-brash,  and  very  poor.  It  had  been 
manured,  for  turneps  and  rape,  at  the  rate  of  30  loads  an 
acre,  with  compost,  consisting  of  two-thirds  lime  and  one- 
third  road-earth;  and,  on  the  10th  of  July,  the  turnep  and 
rape-seed  were  drilled  in  with  80  bushels  of  ashes  an  acre. 
It  came  up  slowly ;  and,  with  very  few  exceptions,  was 
taken  off  by  the  fly.  On  the  S-^th  of  August  I  sowed  12  lbs. 
of  white  mustard-seed  an  acre,  harrowing  in  the  same.  It 
was  slow  in  coming  up,  from  the  dryness  of  the  land;  indeed, 
atone  time  I  despaired  of  a  crop,  but  when  the  rain  fell  it 
grew  prodigiously  ;  and  on  the  11th  day  of  October  I  com.- 
menced  feeding  it.  On  an  average  it  was  then  two  feet 
high,  and  very  thick  in  the  ground ;  you  will  judge,  from 
the  specimen  sent,  of  its  present  height — above  30  inches.  I 
consider  it  a  valuable  artificial  in  sheep  husbandry,  and  par- 
ticularly so  when  turneps  or  rape  fail ;  and,  from  its  rapid 
growth,  two,  or  even  three  crops  may  be  taken  and  fed  off 
in  the  season.  From  its  great  succulency,  some  care  is 
required  in  feeding  it  off.  Our  sheep  are  doing  well  upon 
it ;  but  I  find  they  make  better  work,  having  an  outlet  every 
day  on  their  walk,  than  when  they  were  wholly  confined 
upon  it.  Four  hundred  consume  about  a  quarter  of  an  acre 
a.^day,  or  thereabouts.  One  grew  a  most  excellent  piece  of 
mustard  last  autumn,  on  some  very  heavy  clay  land,  and 
without  manure.  His  sheep  being  badly  managed  when  feed- 
ing it  off,  he  plowed  in  a  considerable  quantity  for  his  wheat, 
of  which  he  had  a  splendid  crop,  and  certainly  the  best  he 
grew  last  season.  1  mention  this  circumstance,  believing  it 
may  be  grown  with  success  on  either  heavy  or  light  soils.  Iv' 
was  led  to  suppose  it  might  be  greatly  aflected  by  frosts,  but 
we  have  experienced  sufficient  to  destroy  the  potato-haulm 
and  the  dahlias,  yet  it  has  not  in  the  slightest  degree  affected 
the  mustard ;  1  therefore  conclude  it  must  be  severe  to  des- 


HOPS.  217 

troy  it.  The  seed  cost  14:s.  6d.  (about  $3.65)  per  bushel, 
and  weighed  about  50  lbs.  per  bushel." 

THE    HOP,  (Humulus  lupulus,) 

Of  which  there  are  several  varieties  indigenous  to  this  country, 
is  an  important  field  crop.  It  grows  best  on  a  strong  loam  or 
well  drained  clay  with  a  light  sub-soil.  If  the  latter  be  reten- 
tive of  water,  the  hop  will  soon  dwindle  or  die  out.  If  made 
sufficiently-  rich,  it  will  flourish  on  light  loam  or  gravels,  but  a 
new,  strong  soil  ii^  better  and  this  requires  little  or  no  manure. 
The  most  desirable  exposure  is  a  gentle  slope  to  the  south, 
but  this  should  be  where  it  can  have  a  free  circulation  of  air 
amidst  the  tall  luxuriant  vegetable  growth. 

Cultivation. — If  f^he  land  has-been  long  in  use,  it  should 
be  thoroughly  dressed  with  compost  and  alkaline  manures,  or 
what  is  nearly  equivalent,  with  fresh  barn  yard-manures  on  a 
previously  well-hoed  crop,  made  perfectly  free  of  all  weeds 
and  deeply  plowed  and  harrowed.  Then  mark  out  the  ground 
at  intervals  of  6  feet  each  way  and  plant  in  the  intersection  of 
the  furrows,  and  unless  the  ground  be  sufficiently  rich,  place 
3  or  4  shovels  of  compost  in  each  hill.  The  planting  is  done 
with  the  new  roots  taken  from  the  old  hills,  which  are  laid 
bare  by  the  plow.  Each  root  should  be  6  or  8  inches  long 
and  must  contain  two  or  more  eyes,  one  to  form  the  root  and 
the  other  the  vine.  Six  plants  are  put  in  a  hill,  all  of  which 
should  be  within  the  compass  of  about  a  foot,  and  covered  to  a 
depth  of  5  inches,  leaving  the  ground  level  when  planted. 
The  lirst  season,  the  intermediate  spaces  between  the  hills 
may  be  planted  with  corn  or  potatoes,  and  the  ground  should  be 
carefully  cleared  ot  weeds  and  frequently  stirred.  No  poles 
are  necessary  the  first  year,  as  the  product  will  not  repay. — 
The  ground  should  receive  a  heavy  dressing  of  compost  the 
following  spring  if  not  sufficiently  rich  and  the  ()lants  should  be 
well  hoed  and  kept  clean. 

Poles  may  be  pre[)ared  at  the  rate  of  2  or  3  to  each  hill, 
20  to  24  feet  long  and  selected' from  a  straight,  smooth  under- 
growth ot  tough,  durable  wood  from  4  to  7  inches  diameter  at 
the  butt  end.  These  are  sharpened  and  firmly  set  with  an  iron 
bar,  or  socket  bar  with  a  wooden  handle,  in  such  a  position  as 
will  allow  the  fullest  elfect  of  the  sun  upon  the  hills  or  roots. — 
When  the  plants  have  run  to  the  length  of  3  or  4  feet  in  the 
spring,  they  should  be  trained  around  the  poles,  winding  in  the 
direction  of  the  sun's  course,  and  fastened  below  the  second  or 
third  set  of  leaves  where  there  is  sufficient  strength  of  vine  to 


218  AMERICAN    AGRICtlLTURE. 

sustain  themselves.  They  may  be  confined  with  rushes,  tough 
grass,  or  more  easily  with  wooolen  yarn.  This  operation  is 
needed  again  in  a  few  days  to  secure  such  as  may  have  got 
loose  by  the  winds  or  other  causes,  and  to  train  up  the  new 
shoots. 

The  gatheriivg  of  hops  should  be  when  they  have  acquired 
a  strong  scent,  at  which  time  the  seed  becomes  firm  and  brown 
and  the  lowest  leaves  begin  to  change  color.  This  precedes 
the  frosts  in  September.  The  vines  must  first  be  cut  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  the  poles  pulled  up  and  laid  in  conveni- 
ent piles,  when  they  may  be  stripped  of  the  hops,  which  are 
thrown  into  large,  light  baskets.  Or  the  poles  may  be  laid  on 
long,  slender  boxes  with  handles  at  each  end,  (to  admit  of  being 
carried  by  two  persons,)  and  as  the  hops  are  stripped  they  fall 
into  the  box.  But  care  must  be  taken  that  they  be  free  from 
leaves,  stems  and  dirt. 

The  hops  should  be  hilled  or  covered  with  compost  and  all 
the  vines  removed  in  the  fall.  The  following  spring  when  the 
ground  is  dry,  the  surface  is  scraped  from  the  hill,  or  additional 
compost  is  added,  when  a  plow  is  run  on  four  sides  as  near  as 
possible  without  injury  to  the  plants.  All  the  running  roots 
are  laid  bare  and  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  within  2  or  3  inches  of 
the  main  root  and  the  latter  are  trimmed  if  spreading  too  far. 
It  is  well  to  break  or  twist  down  the  first  shoots  and  allow  those 
which  succeed  to  run,  as  they  are  likely  to  be  more  productive. 
Cutting  should  be  avoided  unless  in  a  sunny  day,  as  the  profuse 
bleeding  injures  them.  The  poles  will  keep  longer  under  cover. 

CuRiN(;  OR  DRYING. — This  is  an  important  operation  and 
it  may  be  done  by  spreading  the  hops  thinly  in  the  shade  and 
stirring  them  often  enough  to  prevent  heating.  But  when 
there  is  a  large  quantity  they  can  only  be  safely  cured  in  a 
kiln.  The  following  mode  is  recommended  by  Mr.  Blanchard 
ihthe  New  England  Farmer: 

"Much  depends  on  having  a  well -constructed  kiln.  Vov 
the  convenience  of  putting  the  hops  on  the  kiln,  the  side  of 
a  hill  is  generally  chosen  for  its  situation,  ('are  should  be 
taken  that  it  be  a  dry  situation.  The  kiln  should  be  dug  out 
the  same  bigness  at  the  bottom  as  at  the  top  ;  the  side  wall*, 
laid  up  perpendicularly,  and  filled  in  solid  with  s(on<j,  to  give 
it  a  tunnel  form.  Twelve  feet  square  at  the  top,  two  feet 
square  at  the  bottom,  and  at  least  eight  feet  deep,  is  deemed 
a  convenient  size.  On  the  top  of  the  walls  sills  are  laid, 
having  joists  let  into  them  in  like  manner  as  for  laying  a 
floor ;  on  which  laths,  about  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  aro 


HOPS.  219 

nailed,  leaving  open  spaces  between  them  three-fourths  of  an 
inch,  over  which  a  thin  linen  cloth  is  spread  and  nailed  at  the 
edges  to  the  sills.     A  board  about  twelve  inches  wide  is  set 
up  on  each  side  of  the  kiln,  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  sill,  to 
form  a  bin  to  receive  the  hops.     The  larger  the  stones  made 
use  of  in  the  construction  of  the  kiln,  the  better;  as  it  will 
give  a  more  steady  and  dense  heat.      The  inside  of  the  kiln 
should  be  well  plastured  with   m(»rtar  to  make  it   completely 
air-tight.     Charcoal  (that  made  from  yellow  birch  or  maple 
1  should  prefer)  is  the  only  fuel  proper  to  be  used   in  drying 
hops.     The  kiln  should  be  well  heated  before  any  hops  are 
pvit  on,  and  carefully  attended,  to  keep  a  steady  and  regular 
heat.     Fifty  pounds  of  hops,  when  dried,  is  the  largest  quan- 
tity that  should  be  dried  at  one  time,  on  a  kiln  of  this  size  ; 
and  unless  absolutely  necessary  to  put  on  that  quantity,  a  less 
would  dry  better.     The  green  hops  should  be  spread  as  evenly 
and  as  light  as  possible  over  the  kiln.       The  fire  at  first 
should  be- moderate,  but  it  may  be  increased  as  the  hops  dry 
and  the  steam  is  evaporated.     The  hops,  after  laying  a  few 
days,  will  gather  a  partial   moisture,  called  a  sweat.     The 
sweat  will  probably  begin  to  subside  in  about  eight  days,  at 
which  time,  and  before  the  sweat  is  ofl',  they  ought  to  be 
bagged  in  clear  dry  weather.     As  the  exact  time  when  the 
hops  w'i\[  begin  to  sweat,  and  when  the  sweat  will  begin  to 
subside  or  dry  off,    (the  proper  time  to  bag  them,)  will  vary 
with  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  it  will  be  necessary  to  exa- 
mine the  hops  from  day  to  day,  which  is  easily  done  by  tak- 
ing some  of  them  from  the  centre  of  the  heap  with  your  hand, 
if  on  examination  you  find   the  hops  to  be  very  damp,  and 
their  color  altering,  which  will  be  the  case  if  they  were  not 
completely  dried  on  the  kiln,  and  not  otherwise,  you  must 
overhaul  them  and  dry  them  in  the  air.     Hops  should  not  re- 
main long  in  the  bin  or  bag  after  they  are  picked,  as  they 
will  very  soon  heat  and  become   insipid.      The  ho[)s  should 
m)t  be  stirred  on  the  kiln  until  they  are  completely  and  fully 
dried.     Then  they  should  be  removed  from  the  kiln  into  a  dry 
room,  and  laid  in  a  heap,  and  there  remain,  unmoved  and  un- 
stirred, until  bagged,  which  is  done  with  a  screw,  having  a 
box  made  of  plank,  the  size  the  bag  is  wished,  into  which  the 
cloth  is  laid,  and  the  ho|)s  screwed  into  the  box,  which  is  so  con- 
structed that  the  sides  may  be  removed  and  the  bag  sewed  to- 
gether while  in  the  press.    The  most  convenient  size  for  a  bag 
of  hops  to  handle  and  transport,  is  about  five  feet  in  length  and 
to  contain  about  two  hundred  and  fitly  pounds.     The  best 


220  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

bagging  is  coarse,  strong  tow  cloth,  of  our  domestic  manu- 
facturing ;  next  to  that,  Russia  hemp  bagging. 

"It  is  now  common  for  those  who  have  entered  considera- 
bly into  the  cultivation  of  hops,  to  build  houses  over  their  kihis, 
which,  in  wet  weather,  are  very  convenient ;  otherwise,  a 
kiln  in  the  open  air  would  be  preferable.  It  is  necessary  to 
have  these  buildings  well  ventilated  with  doors  and  windows  ; 
and  to  have  them  kept  open  night  and  day,  except  in  wet 
weather,  and  then  shut  those  only  which  are  necessary  to 
keep  out  the  rain.  If  a  ventilator  was  put  in  the  roof  ot  the 
building,  directly  over  the  centre  of  the  kiln,  about  six  feet 
square,  built  like  those  in  breweries  and  distilleries,  they 
would  be  found  very  advantageous.  I  have  seen  many  lots 
of  hops  much  injured  both  in  color  and  ilavor  by  being  dried 
in  close  buildings.  Where  the  houses  over  the  kilns  are 
built  large,  for  the  purpose  of  storing  the  hops  as  they  are 
dried,  which  is  a  great  savijig  of  labor,  a  close  partition 
should  be  made  between  the  kilns  and  the  room  in  which  the 
hops  are  stored,  to  prevent  the  damp  steam  from  the  kilns 
coming  to  them,  as  it  will  color  them,  and  injure  their  Havor 
and  quality  very  much.'' 

DisEAsi^s. — ilops  are  liable  to  attack  from  various  insects, 
blight,  mildew,  &;c.  There  is  no  clfective  remedy  of  general 
application  tor  either.  The  best  preventives  are  new  or  fresh 
soil  which  is  rich  in  ashes  and  the  inorganic  manures,  and  in  a 
fine  tillable  condition  to  insure  a  rapid  growth,  by  which  it 
may  partially  dety  attack ;  and  open  planting  on  such  positions 
as  will  secure  free  circulation  of  air.  When  properly  man- 
aged,  hops  are  one  of  the  most  productive  crops,  but  their 
very  limited  use  will  always  make  them  a  minor  object  of 
cultivation. 

THE    CASTOll    BIO  A  IS,    (Ricinus    communis,   usually  called 
Talma  Christi,) 

Is  a  native  of  the  West  India  Islands,  Avhere  it  grows  with 
great  luxuriance.  It  is  cultivated  ;is  a  liei<l  crop  in  our  mid- 
die  slates,  and  in  the  states  bordering  the  Ohio  river  on  the 
north.  It  likes  a  rich,  mellow  bed,  and  is  planlrd  and  hoed  ^. 
like  corn.  It  attains  the  height  of  o  or  (i  feet,  and  bears  at  the 
rate  of  20  to  28  bushels  per  acre.  The  seed  is  separated  trom 
the  pods,  bruised  and  subjected  to  a  great  jiressure,  by  which 
they  yield  near  a  gallon  to  the  bushel  of  cold  pressed  castor 
oil,  which  is  better  than  that  extracted  by  boiling  and  skim- 
rning.     The  last  is  done  either  with  or  without  lirst  slightly 


ROTATION    OP   CROPS.  221 

roasting.  This  oil  forms  not  only  a  mild  cathartic,  but  with 
some,  is  an  article  of  food.  Its  separation  into  a  limpid  oil 
for  machinery  and  lamps,  and  into  stearine  for  candles,  hay 
lately  much  increased  its  valuable  uses. 


CHAPTER   XI 1 


MISCELLANEOUS  AIDS  AND  OBJECl'S  OF  AGRrCULTORK. 


We  have  thus  far  treated  of  soils  and  manures,  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  ground  and  the  ordinary  cultivated  field  crops,  as 
fidly  as  our  limits  will  permit.  It  remains  for  us  briefly  to 
add  such  incidental  aids  and  objects  of  agriculture  as  could  not 
appropriately  be  embraced  under  either  of  the  foregoing  heads. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS,  ITS  USES  AND  EFFECTS. 

The  practice  of  rotation  of  crops  is  an  agricultural  improve- 
ment of  very  modern  date.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  Dickson's 
Treatise  on  Agriculture,  published  in  Edinburgh,  in  1777. — 
Rotation  has  for  more  than  a  century  been  partially  prac- 
tised in  Flanders  and  perhaps  in  some  other  highly  cultivated 
countries,  and  it  was  afterwards  introrkiced  and  imperfectly 
carried  out  on  a  limited  scale  in  the  Norfolk  district  in  Great 
Britain  ;  but  its  general  introduction  did  not  take  place  till  the 
beginniug  of  the  present  century.  The  s)^stem  of  rotation  is 
one  of  the  first  and  most  important  principles  of  general  hus- 
bandry, and  it  cannot  be  omitted  without  manifest  disadvan- 
tage and  loss.  The  place  of  rotation  was  formerly  supplied 
by  naked  fallows.  This  practice  consists,  as  we  have  before 
shown,  in  giving  the  soil  an  occasional  or  periodical  rest,  in 
which  no  crop  is  taken  off,  and  the  soil  is  allowed  to  produce 
just  what  it  pleases  or  nothing  at  all,  for  one  or  more  years, 
when  it  is  refreshed  and  invigorated  for  the  production  of  its 


AMEHICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


accustomed  useful  crops.  This  system,  it  will  be  perceived, 
implies  the  loss  of  the  income  of  the  soil  for  a  certain  portion 
of  the  time,  and  it  can  be  tolerated  only  where  there  is  more 
land  than  can  be  cultivated.  Modern  agricultural  science  has 
detected,  in  part  at  least,  the  true  theory  of  the  necessity  for 
rotation.  It  has  been,  discovered  that  every  crop  robs  the 
soil  of  a  portion  of  its  elements,  (fifteen  or  sixteen  elementary 
substances  combined  in  various  forms  and  proportions,)  and 
that  no  two  dissimilar  crops  abstract  these  elements  or  their 
compounds  from  the  soil  in  the  same  proportions.  Thus,  if 
we  consider  the  amount  of  the  salts  taken  out  of  the  soil  by  a 
crop  of  turneps  amounting  to  5  tons  of  roots  per  acre ;  of 
barley,  38  bushels ;  one  ton  each  of  dry  clover  or  rye-grass ; 
and  of  wheat,  25  bushels,  we  shall  find  the  great  dispropor- 
tions of  the  various  elements,  which  the  different  vegetables 
have  appropriated.  As  given  by  Johnston  they  will  be  in 
pounds  as  follows : 


Turnep 

BARLEV 

Red 

Rye 

WHEAT. 

Hoots. 

145.5 

Grain. 

5.6 

Straw. 

4.5 

Clover. 

Grass.  |  Grain.  |  Straw. 

Potash     .     .    . 

45.0 

28.5  !  3.3 

0.6 

233.0 

Soda        .     .     . 

64.3 

5.8 

1.1 

12.0 

9.0 

3.5 

0.9 

96.6 

Lime            .     . 

45.8 

2.1 

12.9 

63.0 

16.5 

1.5 

7.2 

149.0 

Magnesia     .     . 

15.5 

3.6 

1.8 

7.5 

2.0 

1.5 

1  0 

32.9 

Alumina .     .     . 

2.2 

0.5 

3.4 

0.3 

0.8 

0.4 

2.7 

10.3 

Silica       .     .     . 

23.6 

23.6 

90.0 

8.0 

62.0 

6.0 

86.0 

299.2 

Sulphuric  Acid 

49.0 

1.2 

2.8 

10.0 

8.0 

0.8 

1.0 

72.8 

Phosplioric  do. 

22.4 

4.2 

3.7 

15.0 

0.6 

0.6 

5.0 

51.5 

Chlorine .     .    . 

14.5 

0.4 

1.5 

8.0 

0.1 

0.2 

0.9 

25.6 

970.9* 

Besides  the  elements  above  noted,  all  crops  absorb  oxide 
of  iron,  and  nearly  all  oxide  of  manganese  and  iodine  ;  and 
of  the  organic  elements  associated  in  various  combinations, 
they  appropriate  about  97  per  cent  of  their  entire  dried  weight. 
Now  it  is  not  only  necessary  that  all  the  above  materials  ex- 
ist  in  the  soil,  hiU  tliat  tJiey  are  also  to  be  found  in  a  form  jrre- 
cisely  adapted  to  tJie  wa?iis  of  the  growing  plant.  That  they 
exist  in  every  soil,  in  some  conditions,  to  an  amount  large 
(Miough  to  afford  tlie  quantity  required  by  the  crop,  can  hardljr 
be  doubted,  but  that  they  are  all  in  a  form  to  supply  the  full 
demands  of  a  luxuriant  crop,  is  probably  true  of  such  only  as 
are  found,  under  favorable  circumstances  of  season  and  cli- 
mate, to  have  produced  the  largest  burthens.  If  a  succession 
of  any  given  crops  are  gathered  and  carried  off  the  land, 

*Tbis  is  exclusive  of  the  turnep  jops. 


ROTATION    OF   CROPS.  223 

without  the  occasional  addition  of  manures,  they  will  be  found 
gradually  to  diminish  in  quantity,  till  thoy  reach  a  point  when 
they  will  scarcely  pay  the  expenses  of  cultivation.  We  mean 
to  be  uuderstood  as  affirming  this  of  all  crops  and  all  soils 
however  naturally  fertile  the  latter  may  be,  unless  they  are 
such  as  receive  an  annual  or  occasional  dressing  from  the  over- 
flow of  enriching  floods,  or  are  artificially  irrigated  with  water, 
which  holds  the  necessary  fertilizing  matters  in  solution  ;  and 
such  are  not  exceptions,  but  receive  their  manure  in  another 
firm,  unaided  by  the  hand  of  the  husbandman.  Neither  are 
old  meadows  (mowing  lands  filled  with  the  natural  or  unculti- 
vated grasses  or  whatever  of  useful  forage  they  choose  to  bear) 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  for  though  they  may  part  with  a  portion 
of  their  annual  crop  in  the  hay,  which  is  removed,  and  which 
is  not  returned  as  manure,  and  by  a  partial  rest  or  pasturage 
appear  to  sustain  their  original  fertility,  yet  if  the  true  cha- 
racter of  the  various  plants  which  they  produce  were  accu- 
rately observed,  (all  of  which  are  indiscriminately  embraced 
under  the  general  head  of  grass  or  hay,)  it  would  be  found 
that  the  plants  gradually  change  from  year  to  year ;  and  while 
some  predominate  in  one  season,  others  take  their  place  the 
year  succeeding,  and  these  again  are  supplanted  by  others  in 
an  unceasing  round  of  natural  rotation.  Another  illustration 
of  rotation  maybe  observed  in  the  succession  of  forest  trees 
that  shoot  up  on  the  same  soil,  to  supply  the  places  of  such  of 
their  predecessors  as  have  decayed  or  been  cut  down.  Thug 
the  pine  and  other  of  the  coniferie,  are  frequently  found  to 
usurp  the  place  of  the  oak,  chesnut,  and  other  deciduous  trees. 
This  occurs  sometimes  partially,  but  in  repeated  instances 
which  have  come  within  our  notice,  forests  have  been  observed 
to  pass  entirely  from  one  order  of  the  vegetable  creation  to  its 
remote  opposite,  the  seeds  or  germs  of  which,  (the  product  of 
an  ancient  rotation,)  had  been  lying  dormant  for  centuries 
perhaps,  waiting  a  favorable  condition  of  circumstances  and 
soil  to  spring  into  life. 

Many  choice  secondary  bottom  lands,  and  others  munifi- 
cently supplied  by  nature  with  all  the  materials  of  fertility, 
have  by  a  long  succession  of  crops  been  reduced  to  a  condi- 
tion of  comparative  sterility.  Yet  it  will  have  been  found  in 
the  progress  of  this  exhaustion,  that  after  the  soil  ceased  to 
give  an  adequate  return  of  one  crop,  as  of  wheat,  corn  or  to- 
bacco, it  would  still  yield  largely  of  some  other  genus  which 
was  adapted  to  it.  These  lands  when  thus  reduced  and  turned 
out  to  commons  tor  a  few  years,  will  again  give  crops  much 


324  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

larger  than  those  which  closed  their  former  bearing  career, 
proving  that  nature  has  been  silently  at  work  in  renovating 
the  land  for  further  use.  The  whole  course  of  her  opera- 
tions is  not  yet  known,  but  this  much  is  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained ;  that  she  is  incessantly  engaged  in  producing  those 
changes  in  the  soil,  which  enable  it  to  contribute  to  vegetable 
sustenance.  Enough  of  lime,  or  potash,  or  silica  may  have 
been  disengaged  to  yield  all  that  may  be  required  for  one 
crop,  which  by  that  crop  is  principally  taken  up,  and  if 
another  of  the  same  kind  follows  in  quick  succession, 
there  will  be  a  deficiency ;  yet  if  a  different  crop  succeed, 
there  may  be  found  enough  of  all  the  materials  it  needs,  fully 
to  mature  it.  A  third  now  takes  its  place  demanding  mate- 
rials for  nutrition  in  forms  and  proportions  unlike  either  which 
has  preceded  it,  and  by  the  time  a  recurrence  to  the  first  is 
necessary,  the  soil  may  be  in  a  condition  again  to  yield  a  re- 
munerating return.  These  remarks  apply  equally  to  such 
soils  as  have,  and  such  as  have  not  received  manures ;  un- 
less, as  is  seldom  the  case,  an  accurate  science  should  add 
them  in  quantity  and  character,  fully  to  supply  the  exhaustion. 
Tiie  addition  or  withholding  of  manures,  only  accelerates  or 
retards  this  eflfect. 

Another  prominent  advantage  of  rotation,  is  in  its  enabling 
such  crops  to  have  the  benefit  of  manure,  as  cannot  receive 
it  without  hazard  or  injury  if  applied  directly  upon  them. 
Thus  wheat  and  the  other  white  grains,  are  liable  to  over- 
growth of  straw,  rust,  and  mildew,  if  manured  with  recent 
dung  ;  yet  this  is  applied  without  risk  to  corn,  roots  and  most 
of  the  hoed  crops  ;  and  when  tempered  by  one  season's  ex- 
haustion, and  the  various  changes  and  combinations  which 
are  effected  in  the  soil,  it  safely  ministers  in  profusion  to  all 
the  wants  of  the  smaller  cereal- grains.  A  third  benefit  of 
rotation  is,  by  bringing  the  land  into  hoed  crops  at  proper  in- 
tervals, it  clears  it  of  any  troublesome  weeds  which  may 
infest  it.  And  still  a  further  advantage  may  be  found,  in  cut- 
ting oil"  the  appropriate  food  of  insects  and  worms,  which  in 
th(».  course  of  time,  by  having  a  full  supply  of  their  necessary 
aliment,  and  especially  if  undisturbed  in  their  (juiet  haunts,  >^ 
will  ofttimes  become  so  numerous  as  seriously  to  interfere 
with  the  labors  of  the  farmer.  A  change  of  crops  and  ex- 
posure of  the  insects  to  frosts,  and  by  the  change  of  cultiva- 
tion which  a  rotation  insures,  will  make  serious  inroads  upon 
their  numbers  if  it  does  not  ellectually  destroy  them.  The 
fanciful  theory  of  the  noxious  excretions  of  jpZawte  first  broached 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  225 

and  ingeniously  defended  by  the  powerful  name  of  Decandolle, 
and  which  the  closest  scrutiny  of  scientific  observers  since, 
has  pronounced  unworthy  of  credit,  does  not  form  a  fifth 
reason  for  rotation.  It  is  because  principles  essential  to  suc- 
cessful vegetation  have  been  abstracted,  not  that  others  hurt- 
ful to  it  have  been  added  by  preceding  crops,  that  rotation  is 
rendered  necessary.  From  all  that  has  hitherto  been  learned 
on  the  subject  of  rotation,  either  from  science  or  practice,  two 
general  principles  may  be  assumed  as  proper  to  guide  every 
tarmer  in  his  course  of  cropping.  First  to  cultivate  as  great 
a  variety  of  plants  as  his  soil,  circumstances  and  market  will 
justify  ;  and  second,  to  have  the  same  or  any  similar  species 
follow  each  other  at  intervals  as  remote  as  may  be  consistent 
with  his  interests.  From  the  foregoing  observations  on  the 
subject,  it  is  evident  that  the  proper  system  of  rotation  for 
any  farmer  to  adopt,  must  depend  on  all  the  conditions  by 
which  he  is  surrounded,  and  that  it  should  vary  according  to 
these  varying  circumstances. 

It  is  a  practice  with  some  to  alternate  wheat  and  clover, 
giving  only  one  year  to  the  former  and  one  or  two  years  to 
the  latter.  This  will  answer  for  a  long  time  on  soils  adapted 
to  each  crop,  provided  there  be  added  to  the  clover,  such  ma- 
nures as  contribute  to  its  own  growth,  and  such  also  as  are  ex- 
hausted by  wheat.  The  saline  manures,  ashes,  lime,  &c.  may 
be  added  directly  to  the  wheat  without  injury ;  but  gypsum 
should  be  sown  upon  the  clover,  as  its  benefits  are  scarcely 
perceptible  on  wheat,  while  upon  clover,  they  are  of  the 
greatest  utility.  But  there  are  objections  even  to  this,  as  it 
does  not  allow  an  economical  or  advantageous  use  of  barn- 
yard manures,  which,  from  their  combining  all  the  elements  of 
fertilit}^  are  the  most  certain  in  their  general  effect.  In  dif- 
ferent countries  of  Europe,  fields  which  have  been  used  for 
an  oft-recurring  clover  crop,  have  become  clover  sick^  as  it  is 
familiarly  termed.  The  plant  will  not  grow  luxuriantly; 
sometimes  refusing  to  vegetate,  or  if  it  starts  upon  its  vege- 
table existence,  it  does  so  apparently  with  the  greatest  re- 
luctance and  suffering,  and  ekes  out  a  puny,  thriftless  career, 
unattended  with  a  single  advantage  to  its  owner.  This  is  sim- 
ply the  result  of  the  exhaustion  of  one  or  more  of  the  indis- 
pensable elements  of  the  plant.  If  it  be  desirable  to  pur- 
sue this  two-course  system  for  any  length  of  time,  noth- 
ing short  of  the  application  of  all  such  inorganic  mat- 
ters as  are  taken  up  by  the  crops,  will  sustain  the  land  in 
a  fertile  condition.  We  subjoin  simply  for  the  purpose  of 
I* 


236  AMEBICAN    AGRICULTUKE. 

illustration,  and  the  guidance  of  such  as  may  have  little  expe- 
rience  in  rotation,  some  systems  which  have  been  pursued 
with  advantage  in  this  country  : 

1".  On  a  grass  sod  broken  up,  with  a  heavy  dressing  of 
barn  yard  manure,  and  muck,  ashes,  and  lime  if  necessary. 
First  3'ear,  corn  with  gypsum  scattered  over  the  plants  after 
the  iirst  hoeing,  which  should  be  immediately  after  its  mak- 
ing its  first  appearance  ;  second  year,  roots  with  manure  ; 
third  year,  wheat  if  adapted  to  the  soil;  it  not,  then  barley,  rye, 
or  oats,  with  grass  or  clover  seed  or  both  ;  fourth  year,  mea- 
dow, which  may  be  continued  at  pleasure,  or  till  the  grass 
or  clover  gives  way.  The  meadow  may  be  followed  by  pas- 
turing if  desired.  Clover  alone  should  not  remain  over  two 
years  as  meadow,  but  for  pasture  it  may  be  continued  lon- 
ger. 

2°.  First  year,  corn  or  roots  on  a  grass  or  clover  ley  with 
manure  ;  second,  oats  and  clover,  ^vith  a  top  dressing  of  10  to 
20  bushels  of  crushed  bones  per  acre ;  third,  clover  pastured 
to  last  of  June,  then  grown  until  fully  matured  in  August, 
when  it  is  turned  over,  and  a  light  dressing  of  compost  and 
40  to  80  bushels  of  leached  ashes  spread  over  it,  and  wheat 
and  timothy  seed  sown  about  15th  September.  If  desired, 
the  following  spring,  clover  is  sown  and  lightly  harrowed. 
This  gives  for  the  fourth  year,  wheat ;  fifth  and  sixth,  and  if 
the  grass  continues  good,  the  seventh  year  also,  meadow. 

3°.  First,  corn  on  a  grass  sod  heavily  manured,  and  a  half 
gill  of  ashes  and  gypsum  mixed  at  the  rate  of  two  of  the  for- 
mer to  one  of  the  latter  put  in  the  hill,  and  an  equal  quantity 
of  pure  gypsum  added  after  the  corn  is  first  hoed;  second, 
oats  or  barley,  wath  hme  at  the  rate  of  20  or  'SO  bushels  per 
acre,  sown  broad-cast  after  the  oats  and  harrowed  in  ;  third, 
peas  or  beans,  removed  early,  and  afterwards  sown  with 
wheat ;  fourth,  wheat  with  a  light  top  dressing  of  compost, 
and  saline  manures  in  the  spring,  and  clover,  or  grass  and 
clover  seed  ;  fifth,  two  or  three  years  in  meadow  and  pasture. 

4*'.  First,  wheat  on  a  grass  sod ;  second,  clover ;  third, 
Indian  com,  heavily  manured ;  fourth,  barley  or  oats,  with 
grass  or  clover  seed  ;  fifth,  and  following,  grass  or  clover. 

5**.  A  good  rotation  for  light,  sandy  lands,  is  first,  corn  i* 
well  manured  and  cut  off  early  and  removed  from  the  ground, 
which  is  immediately  sown  with  rye,  or  the  rye  hoed  in  be- 
tween the  hill ;  second,  rye  with  clover  sown  in  the  spring, 
and  gypsum  added  when  fairly  up ;  third,  clover  cut  for  hay, 


WEEDS.  227 

or  pastured,  the  latter  being  imicli  more  advantageous  tor 
the  laud. 

WEEDS. 

Whatever  plants  infest  the  fanner's  grounds,  and  are  worth- 
less as  objects  of  cultivation,  are  embraced  under  the  general 
name  of  weeds.  In  a  more  comprehensive  sense,  all  plants 
however  useftd  they  may  be  as  distinct  or  separate  objects  of 
attention,  when  scattered  through  a  crop  of  other  useful 
plants  to  their  manifest  detriment  may  l)e  considered  and 
treated  as  such.  Perfect  cultivation  consists  in  having  no- 
thing upon  the  ground  but  what  is  intended  for  the  benefit  of 
the  tiirmer,  and  it  implies  a  total  destruction  of  every  species 
of  vegetation  which  does  not  contribute  directly  to  his  ad- 
vantage. 

In  China  and  some  parts  of  Flanders,  the  fields  are  entirely 
free  from  weeds.  This  is  the  result  of  long  continued  cleanly 
cultivation  by  which  every  weed  has  been  extir|3ated  ;  and  a 
scrupulous  attention  to  the  purity  of  the  seeds ;  and  the  sole 
use  of  urine,  poudrette,  and  saline  manures.  This  object  is 
scarcely  attainable  in  this  country,  except  on  fields  peculiarly 
situated.  The  principal  causes  of  the  propagation  of  weeds" 
among  us,  is  the  negligent  system  of  tillage,  and  the  use  of 
unfermented  vegetable  manures.  By  heating  or  decomposi- 
tion, all  the  seeds  incorporated  in  the  manure  heap  are  des- 
troyed. But  there  is  a  great  loss  in  applying  manure  thus 
changed,  and  having  parted  whh  large  portions  of  its  active, 
nutritive  gases,  unless  protected  by  a  thick  covering  of  turf  or 
vegetable  mold.  For  many  soils  and  crops,  undecomposed 
manures  are  far  the  most  valuable.  But  they  should  always 
be  applied  to  the  hoed  crops,  and  such  as  will  receive  the  at- 
tention of  the  farmer  for  the  utter  extinction  of  weeds.  A  sin- 
gle weed  which  is  allowed  to  mature,  may  become  500  the 
following  year,  and  10,000  the  year  after.  The  cleansing  of 
land  from  weeds,  is  almost  the  sole  justification  for  naked  fal- 
lows. VVIien  a  large  crop  of  them  have  by  any  means  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  ground,  they  ought  to  be  turned  into 
the  soil  with  the  plow  before  ripening  their  sped,  and  they 
thus  become  a  means  of  enriching  rather  than  of  impoverish- 
ing the  ground.  Meadows  which  have  become  foul  with 
useless  plants,  may  be  turned  into  pasture  ;  and  if  there  are 
plants  which  cattle  and  horses  will  not  eat,  let  them  first  crop 
it  closely,  and  then  follow  with  sheep,  which  are  much  more 
indiscriminate  in  their  choice  of  food,  and  consume  many 


228  AMEBICAN    AGRICULTrRE. 

plants  which  are  rejected  by  other  animals.  Whatever  es- 
capes the  maw  of  sheep,  should  be  extirpated  by  the  hand  or 
hoe  before  seeding.  The  utmost  care,  also,  should  be  used 
in  the  oclcct'or*  of  seed,  and  none  sown  but  such  as  has  been 
entirsiy  nved  irorn  i^ny  foreign  seeds. 

The  Cartadji  th'istL  Is  tae  oniy  A^eed  which  htis  taxed  the 
ingenaUy  of  i igilan:  /a.-mers  in  ofiicting  its  removal.  This 
is  however  withiii  .he  power  of  every  one,  who  .vIU  bestow 
upon  it  a  watciifui  attention  tor  a  oingia  season.  T.ie  plant 
should  be  allowed  to  attain  nearly  its  fii'i  gowth,  cr  til]  it 
comes  into  flower,  when  it  has  drawn  largely  upon  the  \ita^ 
ity  of  its  roots.  If  the  patch  be  large  the  plow  should  be  U3cJ 
to  turn  every  particle  of  the  plant  under  the  surface,  and  let 
the  hoe  or  spade  complete  what  has  escaped  the  plow.  If 
the  patch  be  small,  the  hoe  or  spade  should  be  used  to  cut  off 
the  crown  of  the  root,  and  if  in  blossom,  let  the  tops  be  burnt 
to  prevent  the  possibility  of  any  of  the  seeds  ripening.  As 
soon  as  the  tops  again  make  their  appearance  above  ground, 
repeat  the  plowing  or  spading,  and  continue  this  till  the  mid- 
dle of  autumn,  when  the  land  will  be  free  from  them,  and  in 
fine  condition  to  yield  a  crop  of  wheat.  If  they  harbor  in 
fences  or  walls,  these  should  either  be  removed,  or  the  this- 
tle followed  to  its  roots,  and  kept  constantly  cut  into  the 
ground,  when  it  will  not  long  survive. 

FIBROUS  COVERING  OR  GURNEYISM 

Is  the  name  given  to  the  practice,  (conspicuously  brought 
into  notice  recently  by  Mr.  Gurney  of  England,)  of  covering 
grass  lands  with  straw  or  any  simiiar  vegetable  matter.  It 
has  received  the  sanction  of  many  eminent  agriculturists 
abroad  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  every  improvement 
before  our  readers  which  may  possibly  benefit  them,  we  sub- 
join the  following  from  an  article  on  the  subject,  in  the  Bri- 
tish ^Farmer's  Magazine  for  1845.  "The  fact  of  a  remarka- 
ble increase  of  vegetation  from  fibrous  covering  has  now  been 
fully  confirmed  by  numerous  and  careful  experiments.  In 
every  instance  where  the  relative  quantities  of  grass  were 
cut  and  weighed,  that  operated  on  by  this  agency  showed  an 
increase  of  six  to  one  over  that  of  other  parts  of  the  fields  *' 
without  manure,  and  of  five  to  one  above  that  where  guano, 
farm-yard  manure,  wood  ashes,  or  pigs'-house  dung  had  been 
applied  against  it.  The  quantity  of  hay  obtained  from  the 
grass  was  in  the  same  ratio ;  the  mean  of  the  results  from 
different  farms,  shows  that  a  ton  and  a  half  was  obtained 


FIBROUS    COVERING.  229 

where  Gurneyism  had  been  used,  and  only  from  four  to  five 
cwt.  where  it  had  not.  In  many  cases  the  grass  was  so  ■>li^  it 
on  the  parts  of  the  fields  not  covered  that  it  could  with  dificu  iy 
be  mowed,  and  in  some  cases  was  considered  ui  t  Wtntb  cut- 
ting at  all.  The  question  of  quantity  is  indeeJ  seiJeJ.  The 
next  question,  viz:  its  comparative  good i: ess,  t.cciii3  also  de- 
termined. Mr.  Gurney  at  former  meoti  )gi  gi^'J  it  as  his 
opinion  that  the  quality  was  not  inferior  totnut  of  other  grass  ; 
this  opinion,  he  said,  was  franiloJ  ou  bjiaaical  observation 
and  careful  chemical  analysis  ;  jut  lie  at  the  same  time  justly 
rcniarked  Iha:  nothing  p:)oi  ivj  could  be  known  without  expe- 
;Ln?.i(.  or.  ciUb.  ri  ali  cr.j'33,  cattle  eat  this  grass  as  readily 
a:  they  lo  \h\t  of  '  r<'i'  ciry  production,  and  appear  to  do  as 
well  on  it.  It  uit^  nioicover  been  observed  that  the  milk  and 
cream  of  cows  fed  on  it  have  both  increased  in  quantity  and 
improved  in  quality.  Another  very  interesting  and  impor- 
tant fact  has  been  recently  developed,  namely,  that  this  action 
tends  to  improve  the  herbage  by  favoring  the  growth  of  the 
more  valuable  kinds  of  plants  ;  in  almost  every  instance  it 
has  very  much  increased  the  growth  of  the  Dutch  clover,  &;c. 
In  Belgium,  and  many  parts  of  the  midland  counties  of  Eng- 
land, it  is  the  common  practice,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
coucii-grass,  &;c.,  to  manure  twice  on  the  green  side  with 
active  compost ;  no  doubt  the  result  of  this  practice  is  to 
bring  up  the  more  valuable  grasses,  which,  being  delicate, 
require  the  assistance  of  art  to  insure  their  vigorous  growth. 
The  same  results  follow  the  action  of  fibrous  covering,  but  in 
a  more  rapid  manner,  and  certainly  the  quality  of  the  herb- 
age is  improved.  In  many  parts  of  fields  where  the  action 
had  been  induced,  a  beautiful  floor  of  grass  now  appears ; 
while  on  those  parts  left  uncovered,  the  grass  is  very  inferior 
in  appearance,  having  a  considerable  quantity  of  couch- 
grass  and  bent.  There  is  no  doubt  therefore  in  practice 
that  the  quality  of  Gurneyized  grass  will  be  found  equal  if 
not  superior  to  that  of  ordinary  growth. 

"  It  was  thought  by  several  persons  during  the  summer, 
that  the  action  of  fibrous  covering  was  occasioned  by  retard- 
ing evaporation,  and  shading  the  soil  during  the  unusually 
dry  season.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  ;  the  same  pro- 
portional increase  of  vegetation  has  gone  on  since  the  wet 
weather  set  in,  and  still  continues.  Mr.  Gurney  stated  at 
the  last  meeting  that  he  has  tbund  fibrous  covering,  in  a  late 
experiment  during  the  wet  weather,  had  brought  up  the  eaver 
and  clover  in  a  barley  arish,  in  which  the  seeds  had   failed 


230  AMERICAN    AGRICULtUHE. 

from  the  dry  season."  The  kind  of  soil,  and  the  circum- 
ctances  attending  the  application  are  not  stated,  but  we  infer 
from  the  product  on  the  ground,  (hat  it  was  a  very  thin  and 
light,  and  probably  a  dry  soil. 

The  observation  has  been  frequently  made  in  this  country, 
that  certain  half-cleared  pastures,  where  the  trees  and  brush 
had  been  prosfratod  and  partially  burnt,  leaving  a  heavy 
covering  of  old  logs  and  dead  branches,  gave  a  much  larger 
supjily  of  feed  than  such  as  had  been  entirely  cleared.  But 
all  the  iSicls  and  attending  circumstances  have  not  been  given 
with  suliicient  pai'ticularity  to  draw  any  well  setlled  conclu- 
sions;  yet  from  the  generality  of  the  remark  by  observing 
and  careful  men,  there  is  undoubtedly  some  weight  due  to  it. 
The  same  eftiH-t  has  been  oflen  claimed  from  certain  stony 
fields,  which  apparently  give  much  larger  returns  than  others 
from  which  the  stones  had  been  removed.  If  the  results  are 
as  have  been  inferred,  after  deducting  something  for  what 
observation  or  science  may  possibly  not  yet  have  detected, 
we  Avould  ascribe  them  to  two  causes.  1".  The  gradual  de- 
composition of  the  vegetable  covering  and  stone,  and  the  di- 
rect food  which  they  thus  yield  to  the  crop ;  and  2".  the 
greater  and  more  prolonged  deposit  of  dew,  which  is  going 
fonvard  through  most  of  the  24  hours  of  every  day  on  larger 
portions  of  the  field.  Does  the  influence  of  the  shade  and 
moisture  promote  an  unusual  deposite  of  ammonia,  nitric  acid, 
or  any  of  the  fertilizing  gases?  We  are  inclined  to  think 
nitric  acid  is  thus  formed  in  considerable  quantities,  and  es- 
pecially where  there  is  an  Appreciable  quantity  of  lime  in  the 
soil.  Both  M.  Longchampand  Dr.  John  Davy  assert,  "that 
the  presence  of  azotised  matter  is  not  essential  ibr  the  genera- 
tion of  nitric  acid  or  nitrous  salts,  but  that  the  oxygen  and 
azote  of  the  atmosphere  when  condensed  by  capillarity,  will 
combine  in  such  proportions  as  to  form  nitric  acid  thrugh  the 
agency  of  moisture  and  of  neutralising  bases,  such  as  lime, 
magnesia,  potash  or  soda." — (Ure.)  The  condition  of  the 
soil  is  precisely  analogous  to  the  ailificial  nitre  beds,  deduct- 
ing their  excess  of  manure  and  calcareous  matter.  These 
exist  to  some  extent  in  every  soil,  and  it  is  probable  under 
similar  circumstances  they  will  produce  an  amount  of  nitrio' 
acid  proportionate  to  their  own  quantity,  which  in  every  case 
will  be  particularly  felt  by  tlie  crops.  We  have  the  shade, 
moisture,  and  capillary  condition  similar  to  those  of  the  nitric 
beds,  for  the  formation  and  condensing  of  the  acid,  which  in 
this  instance,  is  washed  down  into  the  soil  by  every  succes- 


ELECTRO    CULTURE.  231 

sive  rain,  instead  of  being  carefully  preserved  as  is  done  by 
the  roofing  of  the  beds.  The  question  is  one  of  suflicient 
consequence  to  induce  further  trials,  under  such  circumstan- 
ces  as  will  be  likely  to  afford  data  l<>r  estimating  the  precise 
force  of  the  cause. 

Electro  Culture.     The  application  of    electricity  to 
growing  plants  is  a  subject  which  has  occupied  the  attention 
of  Fcientific  men  for  many  years,  and  apparently  without  arri- 
ving at  any  beneficial  result.     That  it  is  capable  of  producing 
unusually  rapid  growth  when  applied  to  vegetation,  we   have 
too  many  exam[)les  to  admit   of   any    doubt.     A   stream    of 
electricity  from  a  galvanic  Ijattery,  directed  upon    the    seeds 
or  roots  of  plants  under  a  favoral)le  condition,  has  sometimes 
produced  an  amount  of  vegetable  development  within   a  few 
hours,  which  would   have  required  as   many  days  or  even 
weeks  to  produce,  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature.     An  egg 
has  been  hatched  in  one  fourth  the  usual  period  of  incubation, 
and  every  dairy  maid  is  aware  of  the  accelerated  change  in 
the  milk,  from  the   presence   of   a  highly  electrical  atmos- 
phere.    A  thunder  storm  will  sour  milk  in  two   hours  that 
would  otherwise  have  kept  sweet  two   days.     But  after   all 
the  efforts  hitherto  made  to  secure  this  agent  for  the  advance- 
ment   of  the  farmer's  operations,  a  careful  review  of  all  the 
results  obtained,  compels  us  to  acknowledge  that  no  applica- 
tion of  electricity  is  yet  developed,  which  entitles   it  to  the 
consideration  of  practical  agriculturists.     Yet  when  we  con- 
sider the  power  and  universal    presence    of  electricity,    we 
must  confess  our  confidence,  that  the  researchers  of  science 
will  hereafter  detect  some  principles  of  its  operation,  which 
may  be  of  immense  value  to  the  interests  of  agriculjure.     It 
is  probably  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  sole  agent   in  pro- 
ducing all  chemical  changes  in  inert  matter  ;  nor  is  it  at  all 
improbable,  its  agency  is  equally  paramount  in  the  changes  of 
vegetable  and  to  a  certain  extent  also,  in  animal  life.     Inde- 
pendent of  human  agency  or  control,  it  forms  nitric   acid  in 
the  atmosphere  during  thunder   showers,    which   is  brought 
down  by  the  rain,   and  contributes  greatly  to  the  growth  of 
vegetables.     It  is  also  efficient  in  the  deposit  of  dews,  and 
in  numberless  unseen  ways,  it  silently  aids  in  those  benificent 
results  which  gladden  the  heart,  by  fulfilling  the  hopes  of  the 
careful   and   diligent  husbandman.     But  until  something  is 
more  definitely  established   in  relation  to  its  principles  and 
effects,  the  prudent  agriculturist  may  omit  any  attention  to 
the  subject  of  electro  culture. 


232  AMEHICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


EXPERIMENTS    AMONG     FARMERS. 

A  great  advantage  would  result  to  agriculture  if  every  intel- 
ligent tanner  would  pursue  somo  systematic  course  of  experi- 
ments, on  such  a  scale  and  variety  as  his  circumstances 
would  justify,  and  give  the  results  if  successful,  to  the  com- 
munity. It  is  with  experiments  in  farming,  as  was  said  by 
Franklin,  of  a  young  man's  owning  wild  lands  ;  "it  is  well 
enougii  for  every  one  to  have  some,  if  he  dont  have  too  mariy.'" 
They  should  be  his  servants,  not  his  masters ;  and  if  intelli- 
gently managed  and  kept  within  due  bounds,  they  may  be 
made  greatly  subservient  to  his  own  interest,  and  by  their 
promulgation,  eminently  promotive  of  the  general  good.  It 
is  fully  in  accordance  with  another  maxim  of  that  wise  head, 
that  when  it  is  not  within  our  power  to  return  a  favor  to  our 
benefactor,  it  is  our  duty  to  confer  one  on  the  first  necessi- 
tous person  we  meet,  and  thus  the  circle  of  good  offices  will 
pass  round.  The  mutual  communication  of  improvements  of 
any  kind  in  agriculture,  has  the  effect  of  benefiting  not  only 
the  community  generally,  but  even  the  authors  themselves  ; 
as  they  frequently  elicit  corrections  and  modifications  which 
materially  enhance  the  value  of  the  discovery.  These  ex- 
periments should  embrace  the  whole  subject  of  American 
agriculture  ;  soils  and  their  amelioration  ;  manures  of  every 
kind,  alkaline,  vegetable  and  putrescent,  and  their  effects  on 
different  soils  and  crops;  plants  of  every  variety,  and  their  adap- 
tation  to  different  soils,  under  difierent  circumstances  and  with 
various  manures  ;  and  their  relations  to  each  other,  both  as 
successors  in  rotation,  their  value  for  conversion  into  animals 
and  other  forms,  and  their  comparative  utimate  profit ;  the 
production  of  new  varieties  by  hybridizing  and  otherwise  ; 
draining  both  surface  and  covered  ;  the  improvement  of  im- 
plements and  mechanical  operations,  6ic.  &c.  They  should 
'd%o  extend  to  the. impartial  and  thorough  trial  of  the  different 
breeds  of  all  domestic  animals,  making  ultimate  profit  to  the 
owner  the  sole  test  of  their  merits,  crossing  them  in  difierent 
ways  and  under  such  general  rules  as  experience  has  deter- 
mined as  proper  to  be  observed  ;  their  treatment,  food,  man- 
agement, &;c.  Although  much  has  been  accomplished  withiil 
the  last  few  years,  the  science  and  practice  of  agriculture; 
may  yet  be  cosidered  almost  in  in  its  infancy.  There  is  an 
unbounded  field  still  open  for  exploration  and  regearoh*  in 
which  the  efforts  of  persevering  genius,  may  hei'ft^er .  dis» 
cover  mines  of  immense  value  to  the  human  faiyHijcJi^.:«e*w-; 


UTILITY   OF  BIRD3.  233 

THE  UTILITY  OF  BIRDS. 

These  are  among  the  most  useful  of  the  farmer's  aids,  in 
securing  his  crops  from  insect  depredation  ;  and  yet  manifest 
as  this  is  to  every  observing  man,  they  are  frequently  pursued 
and  hunted  from  the  premises  as  if  they  were  his  worst  ene- 
mies. The  martin,  the  swallow  and  the  wren,  which  may 
almost  be  considered  among  the  domestics  of  the  farm ;  and 
the  sparrow,  the  robin,  the  blue  bird,  the  wood-pecker,  the 
bob-a-link,  the  yellow  bird,  the  thrush,  the  oriole  and  nearly 
all  tiie  gay  songsters  of  the  field  accomplish  more  for  the 
destruction  of  noxious  flies,  worms  and  insects,  (the  real  ene- 
mies of  the  farmer,)  than  all  the  nostrums  ever  invented. — 
And  hence  the  folly  of  that  absurd  custom  of  scarecrows  in 
corn-fields  and  orchards,  to  which  we  have  before  alluded  ; 
and  the  chickens  and  ducks  do  the  farmer  more  benefit  than 
injury  in  the  garden  and  pleasure  grounds,  if  kept  out  of  the 
way  while  the  young  plants  are  coming  up.  A  troop  of 
young  turkeys  in  the  field,  will  destroy  their  weight  in  grass- 
hoppers every  three  days,  during  their  prevalence,  in  summer. 
A  pair  of  sparrows  while  feeding  their  yomig,  will  consume 
3,360  catterpillars  in  a  week.  One  hundred  crows  will 
devour  a  ton  and  half  of  grubs  and  insects  in  a  season. — 
Even  the  hawk  and  the  owl,  the  objects  of  general  aversion, 
rid  the  fields  and  woods  of  innumerable  squirrels,  moles  and 
field  mice,  which  are  frequently  great  depredators  upon  the 
crops,  (after  having  exhausted  the  stores  of  worms  and  insects 
which  they  first  invariably  devour,)  and  the  smaller  species 
when  pressed  by  hunger,  will  even  resort  to  grubs,  beetles 
and  grasshoppers,  in  the  absence  of  larger  game.  That 
loathsome  monster  the  bat,  in  its  hobgoblin,  murky  flight, 
will  destroy  its  bulk  of  flies  in  a  single  night.  Slight  injury 
may  occasionally  be  done  to  the  grain  and  fruit  by  the  smaller 
birds,  and  when  thus  intrusive,  some  temporary  precaution 
will  suflice  to  prevent  much  loss.  But  whatever  it  may  bo, 
the  balance  of  benefit  to  the  farmer  from  their  presence,  is 
generally  in  their  favor,  and  instead  of  driving  them  from 
his  grounds,  he  should  encourage  their  social,  chatty  visits  by 
kind  and  gentle  treatment,  and  by  providing  trees  and  pleas- 
ant shrubbery  for  their  accommodation. 

Toads,  Frogs,  &;c. — Shakespeare  has  said  *'  the  load, 
ugly  and  venomous,  wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head." 
Deducting  the  venom  we  shall  find  the  poet  right ;  for  we  can 
no  more  attempt  the  defence  of  his  beauty,  than  that  of  the 


234  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

muck  heap ;  and  we  can  well  excuse  his  unprepossessing 
exterior,  tor  the  sake  of  the  jewel  which  he  wears  in  his 
tongue.  This,  like  that  of  the  chamelion,  of  which  he  is  a 
cousin-german,  he  darts  out  with  lightning  rapidity,  and  clasps 
his  worms  or  insect  prey  within  its  glutinous  folds,  which  is 
with  equal  rapidity  transformed  to  his  capacious  maw.  Appa- 
rently dull,  s(juat,  and  of  the  soil's  hue,  whatever  that  may  be, 
he  sits  silent,  meditative,  yet  watchful  in  the  thick  shade  of 
some  overgrown  cabbage ;  and  then  as  the  careless  insects 
buzz  by,  or  the  grub  or  beetle  crawl  along  unheedful  of  danger, 
he  loads  his  aldermanic  carcass  with  the  savf)ry  repast.  Six- 
teen fresh  beetles,  a  pile  equal  to  his  fasting  bulk,  have  been 
found  in  the  stomach  of  a  single  toad.  The  Frog^  traipsing 
over  the  dewy  fields,  procures  his  summer  subsistence  in  the 
same  way  as  his  seeming  congener  the  toad,  and  with  equal 
benefit  to  the  farmer.  The  stripped  snake,  is  a  harmless  object 
about  the  farm  premises,  and  like  the  toad,  he  is  also  a  great 
gormandiser  of  worms  and  insects.  The  sole  drawback  to 
his  merits,  is  occasionally  feasting  on  the  toad  and  frog. — 
The  black  snake  is  sometimes  destructive  to  young  poultry,  and 
he  is  a  fierce  and  formidable  foe  to  all  whom  his  indomitable 
courage  induces  him  to  attack.  He  charms  the  old  birds  and 
robs  their  nests  both  of  eggs  and  young  ;  but  his  consump- 
tion of  superfluous  scpiirrels  and  field  mice,  perhaps  fully  atones 
for  his  own  delinquencies. 

FENCES. 

In  many  countries  which  have  been  long  under  cultivation, 
with  a  dense  population  and  little  timber,  as  in  China,  and 
other  parts  of  Asia,  Italy,  France,  Belgium,  Holland  and 
other  parts  of  Europe,  fences  are  seldom  seen.  In  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  older  settled  portions  of  the  New  Eng- 
Ihpd  slates  also  a  similar  arrangement  prevails.  This  is  es-. 
pecially  the  cfise  over  the  wide  intervals  or  bottom  lands 
which  skirt  the  banks  of  the  Connecticut  river,  where  peri- 
odical inundations  would  annually  sweep  them  away. — 
Wherever  thissysten  is  adopted,  cultivation  proceeds  without 
obstruction,  and  a  great  saving  is  matle  not  only  in  their  origJk 
nal  cost,  but  in  the  interest,  repairs  and  renewal ;  all  the 
land  is  available  for  crops  ;  no  weeds  or  bushes  are  permitted 
to  send  their  annoying  roots  or  scatter  their  seeds  over  the 
ground  ;  no  safe  harbors  are  made  for  mice,  rats  or  other 
vermin  ;  the  trouble  and  expense  of  keeping  up  bars  or 
gates  are  avoided  ;  and  a  free  couree  is  allowed   by  the  con- 


FENCES.  235 

ceded  roads  or  bye  paths,  for  the  removal  of  the  crops,  and 
carrying  on   manures,  and  the  necessary  passuig  to  and  fro 
in  their  cultivation.    These  are  important  advantages,  which 
it  would  be  well  for  every  community  to  consider,  and  securer 
to  the  full  extent  of  their  circumstances.  The  inconveniences 
of  this  arrangement  are   trifling.     When  cattle  or  sheep  are 
pastured    in    Europe,  wliere    fences  are  wanting,  they  are 
placed  under  the  guidance  of  a  shepherd,  who  wuth  the  aid 
of  a  well  trained  dog,  will  keep  a  large  herd  of  animals,  in 
perfect  subjection  within  the  prescribed  limits.     In  the  un- 
fenced  part  of  the  Connecticut  valley,  (where  extensive  leg- 
islative powers  reside  in  the  separate  towns,  which  enables 
each  to  adopt  such   regulations  as  best  comport  with  their 
own  interests,)  no  animals  are  permitted  to  go  on  to  the  fields 
till  autumn,  and  the  crops  are    required  to  be  removed  at  a 
designated  time,  when  each  occupant   is  at  liberty  to  turn  on 
to  the  common  premises,  a  number  of  cattle  proportionate  to 
his  standing  forage,  which  is  accurately  ascertained  by  a  su- 
pervisory board.     A  certain  number  of  fences  are  necessary 
tor  such  tieids  as  are  continued  in  pasture  through  the  sea- 
son, but  unfortunately,  custom  in  this  country  has  increased 
them  beyond  all  necessity  or  reason.  It  rests  with  the  farmers 
to  abate  such  as  they  deem  consistent  with  their  interests. 
The  kind  of  fences  should  vary  according  to  the  controlling 
circumstances  of  the   farm.     In  those  situations  where  stone 
abounds,  and  especially  if  it  is  a  nuisance,  heavy  stone  fences, 
broad,  and  high  are  undoubtedly  the  most   proper.     Where 
these  are  not  abundant,  an  economical  fence  may  be   con- 
structed, by  a  substantial  foundation  of  stone  reaching  two  or 
two  and  a  half  feet  above  ground,  in  which  posts  are  placed 
at  proper  distances,  with  two   or  three    bar  holes  above  the 
wall,  in  which  an  equal  number  of  rails  are   inserted.     Post 
and  rail  and  post  and  board  fences  are  common  \vhere  there 
is  a  deticiency  of  timber.     The  posts  should  be  placed  from 
two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  below  the  surface  in  the  centre  of 
a  large  hole  and  surrounded  by  fine  stone,  which  should   be 
well  pounded  down  by  a  heavy-iron  shod  rammer  as  they  are 
filled   in.     The  post  will  not  stand    as  firmly  at   first  as  if 
surrounded  by  dirt,  but  it  will  last  njuch  longer.     The  lower 
end   should  be  pointed  which  prevents  its    heaving  with  the 
frost.    If  the  position  of  the  post  while  in  the  tree  be  reversed, 
or  the  upper  end  of  the  split  section  of  the  trunk  which  is 
used  for  a  post,  be  placed  in  the  earth,  it  will  be  more  dura- 
ble.    Charring   or  partially   burning   the   part  of  the    post 


336  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

which  is  buried,  will  add  to  its'  duration.  So  also  will  im- 
bedding it  in  ashes,  lime,  ciiarcoal,  or  clay ;  or  it  may  be 
bored  at  the  surface  with  a  large  auger,  diagonally  down- 
wards and  nearly  through,  tilled  with  salt,  and  closely  plug- 
ged. The  best  timber  for  posts  in  the  order  of  its  durability, 
is  red  cedar,  yellow  locust,  Avhite  oak  and  chestnut.  We  re- 
cently  saw  red  cedar  })osts  used  for  a  porch  which  we  were 
assured  had  been  standing  exposed  to  the  weather  previous 
to  the  Revolution,  and  they  were  still  perfectly  sound.  The 
avidity  with  which  silicious  sands  and  gravel  act  upon  wood, 
renders  a  post  fence  expensive  for  such  soils. 

There  are  large  portions  of  our  country  where  timber 
abounds,  especially  in  the  uncleared  parts  of  it,  where  the 
zig-zag,  worm  or  Virginia  fence  is  by  far  the  most  econom- 
icah  The  timber  is  an  incumbrance  and  therefore  costs 
nothing,  and  the  rails  can  be  cut  and  split  to  10  or  12  feet 
long,  for  00  to  75  cents  per  100  ;  and  the  hauling  and  plac- 
ing is  still  less.  With  good  rails,  well  laid  up  from  the 
ground  on  stones  or  durable  blocks,  and  properly  crossed  at 
the  ends  and  locked  at  the  top,  they  are  firm  and  durable. 
Staking  the  corners  by  projecting  rails  gives  an  unsightly 
appearance  at  all  times,  and  is  particularly  objectionable  for 
plowing,  as  it  considerably  increases  the  waste  ground.  The 
same  object  is  obtained  by  locking  the  fence  when  completed, 
with  a  long  rail  on  each  side,  one  end  resting  on  the  ground, 
and  the  oth(;r  laid  into  the  angle  in  a  line  with  the  fence. 
More  symmetry  and  neatnes  is  secured,  and  a  trifling  amount 
of  timber  saved,  by  putting  two  small  upright  stakes,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  angle,  and  securing  them  by  a  white  oak 
{)lank  six  inches  wide  by  eighteen  inches  long,  with  two 
holes  of  three  inches  diameter  bored  eight  inches  apart,  and 
slipped  over  the  posts  after  most  of  the  rails  have  been  laid. 
TJbc  additional  ones  which  may  be  laid  over  it,  keep 
the  yokes  or  caps  in  their  place  and  the  whole  is  thus  firmly 
bound  together.  In  addition  to  the  timber  designated  for 
posts,  rails  may  be  made  from  any  kind  of  oak,  black  walnut, 
black  and  white  ash,  elm,  and  hickory. 

Turf  and  clay  fences  have  been  tried  in  this  country  with^. 
out  success.  Our  frosts  and  rains  are  so  severe  as  to  break 
and  crumble  them  down  continually.  Cattle  tread  upon  and 
gore  them  ;  and  to  swine  and  sheep  they  scarcely  offer  any 
resistance.  Wire  fences  have  been  suggested,  and  if  gal- 
vanized wire  which  is  not  liable  to  rust,  could  be  procured  at 
a  reasonable  cost,  it  would  combine  gracefulness  and  utility 


FENCES.  237 

in  a  high  degree.  The  hurdle  or  light  moveable  fence  is 
variously  tbrined  of  cordage,  wire  or  wicker  work,  in  short 
panels,  and  firmly  set  into  the  ground  by  sharpened  stakes 
at  the  end  of  each  panel,  and  these  are  fastened  together. 
This  is  a  convenient  appendage  to  farms  where  heavy  green 
crops  of  clover,  lucern,  j^eas,  turneps,  &c.  are  required  to  be 
fed  oft'  in  successive  lots,  by  sheep,  swine  or  catlle.  The 
sunken  fence  or  wall  is  by  far  the  most  agreeable  to  good 
taste,  and  it  is  perfectly  efficient.  It  consists  of  a  vertical 
excavation  on  one  side,  about  five  feet  in  depth,  against 
which  a  wall  is  built  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
opposite  side  is  inclined  at  such  an  angle  as  will  preserve 
the  sod  without  sliding  from  the  effects  of  frost  or  rain,  and 
is  then  turfed  over.  A  farm  thus  divided,  presents  no 
obstruction  to  the  view,  while  it  is  every  where  properly 
walled  in,  besides  affording  good  ditches  for  the  drainage  of 
water.  These  sunken  fences  are  sometimes  raised  a  couple 
of  feet  above  the  ground,  which  increases  the  protection,  at 
a  less  cost  than  deepening  and  widening  the  ditch.  Good 
fences,  at  all  times  kept  in  perfect  repair,  are  the  cheapest. 
Most  of  the  unruly  animals  are  taught  their  habits  by  their 
owners.  Fences  that  are  half  down  or  which  will  fall  by 
the  rubbing  of  cattle,  will  soon  teach  them  to  jump  and  throw 
down  such  as  they  are  unable  to  overleap.  For  the  same 
reason,  gates  are  better  than  bars.  When  the  last  are  used, 
they  should  be  let  down  so  near  the  ground  that  every  ani- 
mal can  step  over  conveniently  ;  nor  should  they  be  hurried 
over  so  fast  as  to  induce  any  animal  to  Jump.  In  driving  a 
flock  of  sheep  through  them,  the  lower  bars  ouglit  to  be 
taken  entirely  out,  or  they  be  allowed  to  go  over  the  bars 
in  single  file.  Animals  will  seldom  become  jumpers  except 
through  their  owners  fault,  or  from  some  bad  example  set 
them  by  unruly  associates  ;  and  unless  the  fences  be  per- . 
fectly  secure,  these  ought  to  be  stalled  till  they  can  be  dis- 
posed of  The  farmer  will  find  that  no  animal  will  repay 
him  the  trouble  and  cost  of'  expensive  fences  and  ruined 
crops. 

Hedges  have  from  time  immemorial,  been  used  in  Great 
Britain  and  some  parts  of  the  European  continent,  but  arc 
now  growing  unpopular  with  utilitarian  agriculturists.  They 
occupy  a  great  deal  of  ground,  and  harbor  much  vermin. 
A  few  only  have  been  introduced  in  this  country,  and  they 
will  probably  never  become  favorites  among  us.     For  those 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

disposed  to  try  them  as  a  matter  of  taste  or  fancy,  we  would 
enumerate  the  English  hawtlwrn^  beautiful  and  hardy  ;  the 
hoUy^  with  an  evergreen  leaf,  handsomely  variegated  with 
yellow  spots,  and  armed  at  the  edges  with  short  stitf  thorns  ; 
the  gorse  or  furze,  a  prickly  shrub  growing  to  the  height  of 
five  teet  or  more  and  bearing  a  yellow  blossom.  These  are 
much  cultivated  in  l^urope  as  defences  agaiuvst  the  inroads 
of  animals;  while  numerous  other  less  formidable  shrubs, 
like  tite.  willow  and  privet  are  grown  for  protection  against 
winds,  and  when  sutficiently  large,  they  serve  for  cattle 
enclosures.  In  America  the  buckthorn  was  first  introduced 
by  Mr.  Derby  of  Massachusetts,  and  by  him  was  considera- 
bly disseminated  through  the  United  States,  and  has  proved 
a  hardy  thrifty  |)lant,  entirely  suited  to  the  purpose.  The 
Osage  orange  grows  spontaneously  in  the  southern  stales  and 
is  said  to  endure  a  northern  climate.  Its  numerous  thick 
tough  branches  and  thorns,  render  it  an  effectual  protection 
to  fields..  We  have  fenced  with  the  native  tJioj-n  of  Western 
New-York,  with  entire  success.  The  Michigan  rose  and 
the  siceet  briar,  both  hardy  and  of  luxuriant  growth,  and 
some  other  species  of  the  native  rose,  have  been  tried  and 
proved  efficient.  The  crab  apple  and  wild  pi  urn ,  with  tlicir 
thick  tough  branches  and  formidable  thorns,  (and  especially 
the  latter,)  with  proper  training  will  be  found  a  perfect  stop- 
page against  animals  of  all  kinds.  The  yellow  locust  and 
acacm  have  been  sometimes  used  ;  and  the  wild  laurel,  an 
evergreen  of  great  beauty  at  all  times,  and  especially  so, 
with  its  magnificent  blossoms,  would  foim  a  beautiful  hedge 
wherever  the  soil  will  give  it  luxuriant  growth.  There  are 
a  variety  of  other  trees  and  shrubs  of  native  growth  among 
us,  which  may  be  em])!oyed  tor  hedges,  but  it  is  unnecessary 
to  specify  them,  as  each  can  best  select  for  himself  what  his 
jmigment  sanctions  from  the  known  character  of  the  plant, 
as  best  suited  to  his  own  peculiar  soil  and  circumstances. 

SHADE    TREES, 

in  such  situations  and  numbers  as  may  be  recjuircd  around 
the  farm  premises,  are  both  ornamental  and  proritable.  The^^ 
have  too  a  social  and  moral  influence  far  beyond  the  mere 
gratification  of  the  eye  or  the  consideration  of  dollars  and 
cents.  In  their  freshness  and  simplicity,  they  impress  the 
young  mind  with  sentiments  of  purity  and  loveliness  as 
enduring  as  life.    From  the  cradle  of  infancy,  consciousness 


SHADE    TREES.  239 

first  dawns  upon  tho  beauty  of  nature  beneath  their  grateful 
shade  ;  the  more  boisterous  sports  of  childhood  seek  their 
keenest  enjoyment  amid  their  expanded  foliage  ;  and  they 
hecome  the  favorite  trysting  place  when  the  ieelings  assume 
a  graver  hue,  and  the  sentiments  of  approaching  manhood 
usurp  the  place  of  unthinking  frolic.  Their  memory  in  after 
life  greets  the  lonely  wanderer  amid  his  trials  and  vicisi- 
tudes,  inciting  him  to  breast  adversity  till  again  welcomed 
to  their  smiling  presence.  Their  thousand  associations 
repress  the  unhallowed  aspirations  of  ambition  and  vice  ; 
and  when  the  last  sun  of  decrepid  age  is  sinking  to  its  rest, 
these  venerable  monitors  solace  the  expiring  soul  with  the 
assurance,  that  a  returning  spring  shall  renew  its  existence 
beyond  the  winter  of  the  tomb. 

Trees  ought  not  to  stand  too  near  ihe  buildings,  but  occupy 
such  a  position  as  to  give  beauty  and  finish  to  the  landsape. 
In  addition  to  danger  from  lightning,  blowing  down,  or  the 
breaking  ofTof  heavy  branches,  there  is  an  excessive  damp- 
ness from  their  proximity  which  produces  rapid  decay  in 
such  "as  are  of  wood,  and  which  frequently  aflects  the  health 
of  the  inmates.  Low  shrubbery  that  does  not  cluster  too 
thickly  and  immediately  around  the  house,  is  not  objectiona- 
ble. Trees  are  ornamental  to  the  streets  and  highways,  but 
should  be  at  such  a  distance  from  the  fences,  as  will  prevent 
injury  to  the  crops  and  afford  a  grateful  shade  to  the  way- 
farer. In  certain  sections  of  the  middle  and  southern  states, 
where  the  soil  is  parched  from  the  long  sultry  sunuiiers,  it 
has  been  found  that  shade  trees  rather  increased  than  dimin- 
ished the  forage  of  the  pastures,  but  through  most  of  the 
middle  and  northern  states,  they  are  decidedly  disadvanta- 
geous, as  the  feed  is  found  to  be  sweeter  and  more  abundant 
beyond  their  reach.  For  this  reason,  such  trees  as  are  pre- 
served exclusively  for  timber  should  be  kept  together  in  the 
wood-lots,  and  even  many  that  are  designed  for  necessary 
shade  or  ornament  may  be  grouped  in  tasteful  coj)scs,  with 
greater  economy  of  ground  and  manifest  improvement  to  the 
landscape. 

In  the  selection  of  trees,  regard  should  be  had  not  only  to 
the  beauty  of  the  tree  and  its  fitness  for  shade,  but  .to  ils  ulti- 
mate value  as  timber  and  fuel.  The  elm  when  standing  iso- 
lated is  one  of  our  most  graceful  and  imposing  trees.  It 
grows  to  an  immense  size  with  gracefully  [)rojecting  limbs 
and  long  pendant  branches,     it  is  liable  to  few  diseases,  and 


240  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

the  fuel  and  timber  are  good  for  most  purposes.  Every  one 
who  has  seen  the  patriarchal  elms  which  grace  the  beautiful 
villages  of  the  Connecticut  valley  and  other  old  towns  of 
New  England,  must  wish  to  see  them  universally  dissemi- 
nated. The  rock  or  sugar  maple  is  a  beautiful  tree,  having  a 
straight  trunk  and  regular  upward-branching  limbs,  forming 
a  top  of  great  symmetry  and  elegance.  Besides  the  ornament 
and  thick  shade  it  affords,  it  gives  an  annual  return  in  its 
sap  which  is  used  for  making  into  sugar  and  syrup  ;  the  fuel 
is  equal  to  any  of  our  native  trees  ;  the  timber  is  valuable, 
yielding  the  beautiful  glossy  bird's-eye  maple  so  much 
esteemed  for  furniture.  The  black  walnut  is  a  stately,  grace- 
ful tree,  of  great  value  for  wood  and  durable  timber,  and 
besides  its  extensive  use  for  plain  substantial  furniture,  the 
knots  and  crolches  make  the  rich  dark  veneering,  which 
rivals  the  mahogany  or  rose-wood  in  brilliancy  and  lasting 
beauty.  Tn  a  fertile  soil  it  likewise  bears  a  highly  flavored 
nut.  The  white  ash  has  a  more  slender  and  a  stiffer  top  than 
either  of  the  preceding,  yet  is  light  and  graceful.  The  fuel 
is  good  and  the  timber  unequalled  in  value  for  the  carriage 
maker.  The  weeping  willow  is  a  tree  of  variegated  foliage, 
and  long  flexile  twigs,  sometimes  trailing  the  ground  for 
yards  in  length.  Its  soft  silvery  leaves  are  among  the  ear- 
liest of  spring,  and  the  last  to  maintain  their  verdure  in 
autumn.  Its  timber  is  worthless  and  the  wood  of  little  value. 
The  black  oak  on  soil  adapted  to  it,  is  a  tree  of  commanding 
beauty  and  stalwart  growth.  The  foliage  appears  late,  but 
is  unsurpassed  for  depth  and  richness  of  color  and  highly 
polished  surface,  and  it  retains  its  summer  green,  long  after 
the  early  frosts  have  mottled  the  ash  and  streaked  the  maple 
with  their  rain-bow  hues.  When  grown  on  dry  and  open 
land,  both  fuel  and  timber  are  valuable.  The  locust  is  a 
beautiful  tree,  of  rapid  growth,  flowering  profusely  and  with 
layers  or  massive  flakes  of  innumerable  leaflets  of  the 
deepest  verdure.  The  wood  is  unrivalled  for  durability  as 
ship  timber  except  by  the  live-oak;  and  for  posts  or  exposure 
to  the  weather,  it  is  exceeded  only  by  the  savin  or  red  cedar. 
It  has  of  late  years  been  subject  to  severe  attack  and  great ^ 
injury  from  the  borer,  a  worm  against  whose  ravages 
hitherto  there  has  been  no  successful  remedy.  The  button- 
wood,  sycamore,  plane-tree,  wafer-beach  or  cotton-tree,  by  all  of 
which  namps  it  is  known  in  different  parts  of  this  country,  is 
of  gigantic  dimensions  when   occupying  a  rich  and  moist 


WOODLANDS.  241 

alluvial  soil.  One  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  measured 
47  feet  in  circumference,  at  a  height  of  four  feet  from  the 
ground.  Its  lofty  mottled  trunk,  its  huge  irregular  limbs, 
and  its  numerous  pendant  balls,  in  which  are  compressed 
myriads  of  seeds  with  their  plumy  tufts  that  are  wafted  to 
immense  distances  for  propagation,  have  rendered  it  occa- 
sionally a  favorite.  They  are  often  seen  on  the  banks  of 
our,  rivers  where  the  branches  interlock,  and  sometimes  they 
completely  span  streams  of  considerable  size.  The  wood 
is  cross-grained  and  intractable  for  working,  and  the  timber 
is  of  little  use.  The  great  variety  of  American  shade-trees, 
both  deciduous  and  evergreen,  far  surpasses  that  within  the 
same  area  on  any  portion  of  the  eastern  continent,  but  it 
would  be  transcending  our  limits  farther  to  particularize 
them. 

WOOD  LANDS. 

There  are  few  farms  in  the  United  States,  where  it  is  not 
convenient  and  profitable  to  have  a  wood  lot  attached.  They 
supply  the  owner  with  his  fuel,  which  he  can  prepare  at  lei- 
sure times,  they  furnish  him  with  timber  for  buildings,  rails, 
posts  and  for  the  occasional  demands  for  implements ;  they 
require  little  attention,  and  if  well  managed,  will  yield  a 
good  supply  of  forage  for  cattle  and  sheep.  The  trees  should 
be  kept  in  a  vigorous,  growing  condition,  as  the  profits,  are 
as  much  enhanced  from  this  cause  as  any  of  the  cultivated 
crops.  Fevi^  of  our  American  fields  require  planting  with 
forest  trees.  The  soil  is  everywhere  adapted  to  their  growth, 
and  being  full  of  seeds  and  roots  when  not  too  long  under 
cultivation,  it  needs  but  to  be  left  unoccupied  for  a  while,  and 
they  will  everywhere  spring  up  spontaneously.  Even  the 
oak  openings  of  the  west,  with  here  and  there  a  scattered 
tree,  and  such  of  the  prairies  as  boi-der  upon  wood  lands, 
when  rescued  from  the  destructive  effects  of  the  annual  fires, 
will  rapidly  shoot  up  into  vigorous  forests.  We  have  re- 
peatedly seen  instances  of  the  re-covering  of  oak  barrens  and 
prairies  with  young  forests,  which  was  undoubtedly  their 
condition  before  the  Indians  subjected  them  to  conflagration  ; 
and  they  have  indeed,  always  maintained  their  foothold 
against  these  desolating  fires,  wherever  there  was  moisture 
enough  in  the  soil  to  arrest  their  progress.  In  almost  every 
instance,  if  the  germs  of  forest  vegetation  have  not  been  ex- 
tinguished in  the  soil,  the  wood  lot  may  be  safely  left  to  self 
propagation,  as  it  will  be  certain  to  produce  those  trees  which 
K 


242  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

are  best  suited  to  the  present  state  of  the  soil.  Slightly  thin- 
ning the  young  wood  may  in  some  cases  be  desirable,  and 
especially  by  the  removal  of  such  worthless  shrubbery  as 
never  attains  a  size  or  character  to  render  it  of  any  value. 
Such  are  the  alders,  the  blue  beach,  swamp- Avillow,  (fee,  and 
where  there  is  a  redundance  of  the  better  varic^ties  of  equal 
vigor,  those  may  be  removed  that  will  be  worth  the  least 
when  matured.  In  most  of  our  woodlands  however,  nature 
is  left  to  assert  her  own  unaided  preferences,  growing  what 
and  how  she  pleases,  and  it  must  be  confessed  she  is  seldom 
at  variance  with  the  owner's  interest.  Serious  and  perma- 
nent injury  has  often  followed  close  thinning.  In  cutting- 
over  woodlands,  it  is  generally  best  to  remove  all  the  large 
trees  on  the  premises  at  the  same  time.  This  admits  a  fresh 
growth  on  equal  footing,  and  allows  that  variety  to  get  the  as- 
cendancy to  which  the  soil  is  best  suited.  In  the  older  set- 
tled states,  where  land  and  its  productions  are  comparatively 
high,  many  adopt  the  plan  of  clearing  off  every  thing,  even 
burning  the  old  logs  and  1)rush,  and  then  sow  one  or  more 
crops  of  wheat  or  rye,  for  which  the  land  is  in  admirable  con- 
dition, from  the  long  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  and  the 
heavy  dressing  of  ashes  thus  received.  They  then  allow 
the  forest  to  resume  its  original  claims,  which  it  is  not  slow 
to  do,  from  the  abundance-  of  seeds  and  roots  in  the  ground. 
But  unless  the  crop  be  valuable  the  utility  of  this  practice  is 
doubtful,  as  by  the  destruction  of  all  the  young  stuff  which 
may  ba  left,  there  is  a  certain  delay  of  some  years  in  the  after 
growth  of  the  wood;  and  the  gradual  decay  of  the  old  trunks 
and  brush  may  minister  fully  as  much  to  its  growth  as  the  ash 
which  their  combustion  leaves ;  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
is  diminished  just. in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  vegetable 
matter,  which  may  have  been  abstracted  by  the  grain  croj)s 
taken  off.  The  proper  time  for  cutting  over  the  wood  nuist 
depend  on  its  character,  the  soil,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to 
be  applied.  For  saw  logs  or  frame  timber,  it  should  have  a 
thrifly  growth  of  40  or  50  years  ;  but  in  the  mean  time  much 
scattering  fuel  may  be  taken  from  it,  and  occassionally  such 
mature  timber  trees  as  can  bo  removed  without  injury  to  the 
remainder.  For  fuel  alone,  a  much  earlier  cutting  has  been 
found  most  profitable.  The  Salisbury  Iron  Company  in  Con- 
necticut, has  several  thousand  acres  of  land,  which  were  pur- 
chased and  have  been  reserved  exclusively  for  supplying  their 
own  charcoal.  The  intelligent  manager  informed  us  when 
recently  there,  that  from  an  experience  of  60  years,  they  had 


LIOHTNING-RODS.  243 

ascertained  the  most  profitable  period  for  cutting,  was  once  in 
about  16  years,  when  every  thing  was  removed  of  an  availa- 
ble  size,  and  the  wood  was  left  entirely  to  itself  for  another 
growth.  It  has  been  "found  that  this  yielded  an  annual  inter- 
est on  $16  to  S20  an  acre,  which  for  a  rough  and  rather 
indifferent  soil,  retnote  from  a  wood  or  timber  market,  will 
pay  fully  as  much  as  the  nett  profits  on  cultivated  land  in 
the  neighborhood. 

When  young,  the  wood  should  be  kept  entirely  free  from 
sheep  and  cattle,  as  they  feed  upon  the  fresh  shoots  with 
nearly  the  same  avidity  as  they  do  upon  grass  or  clover,  and 
when  it  is  desirable  to  thicken  the  standing  trees  by  an  addi- 
tional growth,  cattle  should  be  kept  from  the  range  till  such 
time  as  the  new  sprouts  or  seedling  may  have  attained  a 
height  beyond  their  reach.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  bring  into 
woodland  such  fields  as  have  not  forest  roots  or  seeds  already 
deposited  in  a  condition  for  germination,  the  fields  should  be 
sown  or  planted  with  all  the  various  nuts  or  seeds  adapted 
to  the  soil,  and  which  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate.  Trans- 
planting'trees  for  a  forest  in  this  country,  cannot  at  present 
be  made  to  pay  from  its  large  expense,  and  if  the  trees  will 
not  grow  naturally  or  by  sowing,  the  land  should  be  contin- 
ued in  pastures  or  cultivation.  There  are  some  lands  so  un- 
fitted for  tillage  by  their  roughness  or  texture,  as  to  be  much 
more  profitable  as  woodland.  It  is  better  to  retain  such  in 
forest,  and  make  from  them  whatever  they  are  capable  of 
yielding,  than  by  clearing  and  bringing  them  into  use,  to  add 
them  to  what  are  perhaps  already  superfluous  tillage  fields, 
and  become  a  drain  on  labor  and  manures  which  they  illy 
repay. 

In  clearing  lands,  when  it  is  desirable  to  reserve  sufficient 
trees  for  a  park  or  shade,  a  selection  should  be  made  of  such 
as  are  young  and  healthy  which  have  grown  in  the  most  open 
places,  with  a  short  stem  and  thick  top.  It  will  tend  to  insure 
their  continued  and  vigorous  growth,  if  the  top  and  leading 
branches  be  shortened.  A  large  tree  will  seldom  thrive  when 
subjected  to  the  new  condition  in  which  it  is  placed,  after  the 
removal  of  the  shade  and  moisture  by  which  it  has  been  sur- 
rounded. They  will  generally  remain  stationary  or  soon  de- 
cay ;  and  the  slight  foothold  they  have  upon  the  earth  by  their 
roots,  which  was  sufficient  for  their  protected  situation  while 
surrounded  by  other  trees,  exposes  them  to  destruction  from 
violent  gales ;  and  they  seldom  have  that  beauty  of  top  and 
symmetry  of  appearance  which  should  entitle  them  to  be  retain- 


244  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

ed  singly.  If  partialities  are  to  be  indulged  for  any,  they 
should  be  surrounded  by  a  copse  of  younger  trees  by  which 
they  will  be  in  a  measure  protected.  Young  stocks  should  be 
left  in  numbers  greater  than  are  required,  as  many  of  them 
will  die,  and  from  the  remainder  selections  can  be  made  of 
such  as  will  best  answer  the  purposes  designed. 

THE  PROPER  TIME  FOR  CUTTING  TIMBER. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  community  think  winter  the  time  for 
this  purpose,  but  the  reason  assigned  "  that  the  sap  is  then  in 
the  roots"  shows  its  futility,  as  it  is  evident  to  the  most  su- 
perficial observer  that  there  is  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  sap 
in  the  tree  at  all  seasons.  It  is  less  active  in  winter,  and  like 
all  other  moisture,  is  congealed  during  the  coldest  weather ; 
yet  when  not  absolutely  frozen,  circulation  is  never  entirely 
stopped  in  the  living  tree.  Reason  or  philosophy  would  seem 
to  indicate  that  the  period  of  the  maturity  of  the  leaf,  or  from 
the  last  of  June  to  the  first  of  November,  is  the  season  for 
cutting  timber  in  its  perfection.  Certain  it  is,  that  we  have 
numerous  examples  of  timber  cut  within  this  period,  which 
has  exhibited  a  durability  twice  or  three  times  as  great  as  that 
cut  in  winter,  when  placed  under  precisely  the  same  circum- 
stances. After  it  is  felled,  it  should  at  once  be  peeled,  drawn 
from  the  woods  and  elevated  from  the  ground  to  facilitate 
drying  ;  and  if  it  is  intended  to  be  used  under  cover,  the  soon- 
er it  is  put  there  the  better.  Wood  designed  for  fuel,  will 
spend  much  better  when  cut  as  above  mentioned  and  {medi- 
ately housed,  but  as  this  is  generally  inconvenient  from  the 
labor  of  the  farm  being  then  required  for  the  harvesting  of  the 
crops,  it  may  be  more  economical  to  cut  it  whenever  there  is 
most  leisure. 

Preservation  of  timber. — Various  preparations  of  late 
years  have  been  tried  for  the  more  effectual  preservation  of 
timber,  which  have  proved  quite  successful,  but  the  expense 
precludes  their  adoption  for  general  purposes.  These  are 
Kyanizing,  or  the  use  of  carbureted  azote,  (the  base  of  prus- 
sic  acid  ;)  the  use  of  corrosive  sublimate,  a  bi-chloride  of 
mercury ;  pyroligiiite  of  iron,  formed  from  iron  dissolved  in  ' 
pyrolignous  acid,  (which  is  produced  from  the  distillation  of 
of  wood,  or  from  the  condensed  vapor  that  escapes  from  wood 
fuel  while  burning,  and  which  may  be  obtained  in  large 
quantities  from  a  coal  pit  where  charcoal  is  made  ;)  and  a 
solution  of  common  salt.  These  will  be  absorbed  by  the  sap 
pores  and  universally  disseminated  through  the  body  of  the 


FARMING  TOOLS.  246 

tree,  by  sawing  or  cutting  the  trunk  partially  off  while  erect, 
and  applying  the  solution  to  its  base  ;  or  it  may  be  cut  down, 
leaving  a  part  of  the  leafy  branches  above  the  point  of  satu- 
i*ation,  and  apply  the  solution  to  the  butt  end.  Beautiful  tints 
are  given  to  timber  which  is  used  for  cabinet  work,  by  satu- 
rathig  it  with  various  coloring  matters.  Although  the 
expense  of  these  preparations  may  prevent  their  use  for  large, 
cheap  structures,  yet  for  all  the  lighter  instruments,  such  as 
farmer's  tools,  plows,  <fec.,  where  the  cost  of  the  wood  is 
inconsiderable  in  comparison  with  that  of  making,  it  would 
be  economy  to  use  such  timber  only  as  will  give  the  longest 
duration,  though  its  first  price  may  be  ten-fold  that  of  the 
more  perishable  material. 

FARMING  TOOLS. 

These  should  form  an  important  item  of  the  farmer's  atten- 
tion, as  upon  their  proper  construction  depends  much  of 
the  economy  and  success  with  which  he  can  perform  his 
operations.  There  have  been  great  and  important  improve- 
ments within  the  past  few  years,  in  most  of  the  implements, 
which  have  diminished  the  expense  while  they  have  greatly 
improved  the  mechanical  operations  of  agriculture.  We 
have  studiously  avoided  a  reference  to  any  of  these,  as  there 
are  many  competitors  for  similar  and  nearly  equal  improve- 
ment, and  in  this  career  of  sharp  and  commendable  rivalry, 
what  is  the  best  to-day,  may  be  supplanted  by  something 
better  to-morrow.  These  implements  may  now  be  found 
at  the  agricultural  ware-houses,  of  almost  every  desirable 
variety.  Of  these,  the  best  only  should  be  procured  ;  such 
as  are  the  most  perfect  in  their  principles  and  of  the  most 
durable  materials.  The  wood  \\'ork  should  be  well  guarded 
with  paint,  if  to  be  exposed  to  the.  weather,  and  the  iron  or 
steel  with  paint,  or  a  coating  of  hot  tar,  unless  kept  bright- 
ened by  use.  When  required  for  cutting,  they  should  always 
be  sharp,  even  to  the  hoe,  the  spade  and  the  share  and  coulter 
of  the  plow.  When  not  in  use,  they  ought  to  be  in  a  dry 
place.  Plows,  harrows,  carts  and  sleds,  should  all  be  thus 
protected,  and  by  their  longer  durability  they  will  amply 
repay  the  expense  of  shed  room.  They  ought  also  to  be 
kept  in  the  best  repair,  which  may  be  done  at  leisure  times 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  use.  [Some  additional  remarks  on  this 
subject  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  "  plows."] 


246  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE. 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  OF  THE  FARMER. 

Though  last  mentioned,  this  is  of  the  first  importance  to 
the  farmer's  success.  It  should  commence  with  the  thor- 
ough groundvvorli  attainments  every  where  to  be  acquired  in 
our  primary  schools,  and  should  embrace  the  elementary 
knowledge  of  mechanics,  botany,  chemistry  and  geology,  nor 
can  it  be  complete  without  some  acquaintance  wdth  anatomy 
and  physiology.  The  learner  ought  then  to  have  a  complete, 
practical  understanding  of  the  manual  operations  of  the  farm, 
the  best  manner  of  planting,  cultivating  and  securing  crops ; 
he  should  be  familiar  with  the  proper  management,  feeding 
and  breeding  of  animals  ;  the  treatment  of  soils,  the  appli. 
cation  of  manures,  and  all  the  various  matters  connected  with 
agriculture.  This  will  be  but  the  commencement  of  his 
education,  and  it  should  be  steadily  pursued  through  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  He  must  learn  from  his  own  experi- 
ence, which  is  the  most  certain  and  complete  knowledge  he 
can  obtain,  as  he  thus  ascertains  all  the  circumstances  which 
have  led  to  certain  results  ;  and  he  should  also  learn  from  the 
experience  of  his  neighbors,  and  from  his  personal  observa- 
tion on  every  subject  that  comes  within  his  notice.  He  will 
be  particularly  assisted  by  the  cheap,  agricultural  journals  of 
the  present  day,  which  embrace  the  latest  experience  of  some 
of  our  best  farmers  throughout  remote  sections  of  country, 
on  almost  every  subject  pertaining  to  his  occupation.  To 
these  should  be  added,  the  selection  of  standard,  reliable 
works  on  the  various  topics  of  farming,  and  of  the  latest 
authority  which  can  be  procured  for  direction  and  reference. 
It  is*muchto  be  desired,  thai  agricultural  scJiools  and  colleges 
could  be  added  to  the  list  of  aids  to  farmings  where  experi- 
enced and  gifted  minds  should  be  placed,  surrounded  by  the 
means  for  conveying  instruction  in  the  fullest,  yet  most  simple 
and  effective  manner,  and  with  every  requisite  for  practical 
illustration.  We  cannot  permit  ourselves  to  doubt,  that  this 
neglected  field  will  soon  be  elficiently  occupied,  and  thus 
supply  the  only  link  remaining  in  the  thorough  education  of 
the  farmer.  ^, 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  247 


CHAPTERXIII. 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 

Great  neglect  is  manifest  in  this  country,  in  the  erection 
of  suitable  farm  buildings.  The  deficiency  extends  not  only 
to  their  number,  which  is  often  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the 
farm,  but  more  frequently  to  their  location,  arrangement  and 
manner  of  construction.  The  annual  losses  which  occur  in 
consequence  of  this  neglect,  would  in  a  few  years,  furnish 
every  farm  in  the  Union  with  barns  and  out-houses  entirely 
sufficient  tor  the  necessities  of  each.  We  will  give  briefly 
in  detail,  the  leading  considerations  which  should  govern  the 
farmer  in  tJieir  construction. 

THE   FARMHOUSE. 

If  this  is  required  for  the  occupation  of  the  owner,  it  may 
be  of  any  form  and  size  his  means  and  taste  dictate.  If  for 
a  tenant,  and  to  be  employed  solely  with  a  reference  to  its 
value  to  the  farm,  it  should  be  neat,  comfortable  and  of  con- 
venient size.  It  should  especially  contain  a  cool,  airy  and 
spacious  dairy  room,  unless  the  owner  should  prefer  one  in- 
dependant  of  the  house,"  over  a  clear  spring  or  cool  rivulet, 
where,  partially  protected  from  the  sun  by  a  sheltering  bank, 
half  buried  in  the  earth  and  made,  as  it  should  be  if  possible, 
of  stone,  the  cool  atmosphere  within  will  aflbrd  the  best 
safeguard  against  flies  and  other  insects,  and  preserve  the 
butter  and  cheese  in  the  finest  condition.  Stone  or  brick  are 
the  best  materials  for  dwellings,  as  they  are  cooler  in  summer 
and  warmer  in  winter,  and  if  comfort  be  the  object  of  the 
farmer's  toil,  there  is  certainly  no  place  where  it  should  be 
sooner  consulted  than  in  his  own  domicil.  A  naked, 
scorching  exposure,  equally  with  a  bleak  and  dreary  one  is  to 
be  avoided.  The  design  of  a  house  is  protection  to  its 
inmates,  and  if  there  be  no  adequate  shelter  from  the  elements, 
it  fails  in  its  purpose.  It  should  be  tastefully  built,  as  this 
need  not   materially  increase  the  expense,  while  it  adds  a 


248  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

pleasant  feature  to  the  farm.  It  ought  to  occupy  a  position 
easily  accessible  to  the  other  buldings  and  the  fields,  and  yet 
be  within  convenient  distance  of  the  highway.  It  is  desirable 
to  have  it  so  far  removed  as  to  admit  of  a  light  screen  of 
trees,  and  nature  will  thus  add  an  ornament  and  protection 
in  the  surrounding  foliage,  which  no  skill  of  the  architect 
can  equal. 

jgjTHE  Cellar. — This  is  an  essential  appendage  to  a  house, 
particularly  where  roots  are  to  be  stored.  Many  appropriate 
a  part  of  it  to  the  dairy,  and  if  thus  employed  it  should  be 
high,  clean  and  well  ventilated.  The  proper  preservation  of 
what  is  contained  in  it,  and  the  health  of  the  inmates,  demand 
a  suitable  dryness  and  free  circulation  of  air.  The  cellar  is 
frequently  placed  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  which  renders  it  more 
accessible  from  without.  This  is  in  no  respect  objectionable, 
if  the  walls  are  made  sufficiently  tight  to  exclude  the  frosts. 
When  on  level  ground,  they  should  be  sunk  only  three  or  four 
feet  below  the  natural  surface,  and  the  walls  raised  enough 
above  to  give  all  the  room  wanted ;  and  the  excavated  earth 
can  be  banked  around  the  house,  thus  rendering  it  more  ele- 
vated and  pleasant.  It  also  provides  for  the  admission  of  light 
i^nd  air  through  small  windows,  which  are  placed  above 
ground.  A  wire  gauze  to  exclude  fiies,  ought  to  occupy  the 
place  of  the  glass  in  warm  weather,  and  if  liable  to  frosts, 
there  should  be  double  sashes  in  winter.  Ventilation  is  im- 
portant in  all  seasons,  and  it  may  be  secured  by  as  large  an 
aperture  as  possible  connected  with  the  chimney,  and  the 
windows  may  be  thrown  open  in  pleasant  weather  during  the 
warmer  part  of  the  day.  The  cellar  should  be  connected  with 
the  kitchen  or  sheds  above,  by  safe,  well  lighted  stairs.  And 
lastly,  the  entire  building  should  be  rat-proof.  This  is  more 
easily  accomplished  than  is  generally  imagined.  When 
erecting  a  building,  a  carpenter  or  mason,  for  less  than  the 
additional  expense  of  a  year's  support  for  a  troop  of  rats,  can 
for  ever  exclude  them  from  it,  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  inge- 
nuity. A  brick  floor  in  a  cellar  is  easily  broken  up  by  these 
insidious  and  and  ever-busy  vermin,  and  a  plank  or  wooden 
floor  is  objectionable,  from  its  speedy  decay.  The  most  effec-? 
tive  and  permanent  barrier  to  their  inroads,  is  aflbrded  by  a 
stone  pavement  laid  with  large  pieces  in  cement,  closely  fit- 
ted to  each  other  and  to  the  side  walls.  This  is  also  secured 
by  placing  a  bed  of  small  stones  and  pebbles  on  the  ground 
and  groutingf  or  pouring  over  it  a  mortar  made  of  lime  and 
sand  so  thin  as  to  run  freely  between  the  stones.     When  dry 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  249 

a  thin  coating  of  watef-lime  cement  is  added,  which  is 
smoothed  over  with  the  trowel.  This  can  be  so  laid  as  to 
admit  of  ready  and  perfect  drainage,  by  a  depression  in  th'^ 
centre  or  sides,  which  answers  for  gutters. 

The  Barn  is  the  most  important  appendage  of  the  farm, 
and  its  size  and  form  must  depend  on  the  particular  wants  of 
the  owner.  It  is  sometimes  essential  to  have  more  than  one 
on  the  premises,  but  in  either  case  they  should  be  within 
convenient  distance  of  the  house.  They  should  be  large 
enough  to  hold  all  the  fodder  and  animals  on  the  farm.  Not 
a  hoof  about  the  premises  should  be  required  to  brave  our 
northern  winters,  unsheltered  by  a  tight  roof  and  a  dry  bed. 
They  will  thrive  so  much  faster  and  consume  so  much  less 
food  when  thus  protected,  that  the  owner  will  be  ten-fold 
remunerated.  Disease  is  thus  often  prevented,  and  if  it  oc- 
curs, is  more  easily  removed.  The  saving  in  fodder  by 
placing  it  at  once  under  cover  when  cured,  is  another  great 
item  of  consideration.  Besides  the  expense  of  stacking  and 
fencing,  the  waste  of  the  tops  and  outside  fodder  in  small 
stacks,  is  frequently  one  fourth  of  the  w^hole,  and  if  carelessly 
done,  it  will  be  much  greater.  There  is  the  further  expense 
of  again  moving  it  to  the  barn,  or  foddering  it  in  the  field, 
which  greatly  increases  the  waste.  It  is  a  convenient  mode 
to  place  a  barn  on  a  side  hill  inclining  to  the  south-east,  when- 
ever the  position  of  the  ground  admits  of  it.  There  are  seve- 
ral advantages  connected  with  this  plan.  Room  is  obtained 
by  excavation  and  underpinning,  more  cheaply  than  in  build- 
ing above.  An  extensive  range  of  stabling  may  be  made  be- 
low, which  will  be  warmer  than  what  is  afforded  by  a  wooden 
building,  and  the  mangers  are  easily  supplied  with  the  fodder 
which  is  stored  above.  Extensive  cellar  room  can  be  had 
next  to  the  bank,  in  which  all  the  roots  required  for  the  cattle 
can  be  safely  stored  in  front  of  their  mangers,  and  where 
they  are  easily  deposited  from  carts  through  windows  arran- 
ged on  the  upper  side,  or  scuttles  in  the  barn-floor  above. 
More  room  is  afforded  for  hay  in  consequence  of  placing 
some  of  the  stables  below,  and  in  this  way,  a  large  part  of  the 
labor  of  pitching  it  on  to  elevated  scaffolds  is  avoided.  The 
barn  and  sheds  ought  to  be  well  raised  on  good  underpinnings, 
to  prevent  the  rotting  of  sills,  and  to  allow  the  free  escape  of 
moisture,  as  low,  damp  premises  are  injurious  to  the  health 
of  animals. 

Every  consideration  ought  to  be  given  to  the  saving  of  ma- 
nure.    The  stables  should  have  drains  that  will  carry  off  the 
K* 


250  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

liquid  evacuations  to  a  muck-heap  or  reservoir,  and  whatever 
manure  is  thrown  out,  should  be  carefully  protected.  The 
manure  contains  the  future  crops  of  the  farmer,  and  unless 
he  is  willing  to  forego  the  latter,  he  should  carefully  husband 
the  former.  A  low  roof  projecting  several  feet  over  the  ma- 
nure which  is  thrown  from  the  stables,  will  do  much  to  pre- 
vent waste  from  sun  and  rains.  The  mangers  ought  to  be 
so  constructed  as  to  economize  the  fodder.  Box-feeding  for 
cattle  we  prefer,  as  in  addition  to  hay,  roots  and  meal  may  be 
fed  in  them  without  loss ;  and  with  over-ripe  hay,  a  grat  deal 
of  seed  may  in  this  way  be  saved,  which  will  diminish  the 
quantity  necessary  to  be  purchased  for  sowing.  The  fine 
leaves  and  small  fragments  of  hay  are  also  kept  from  waste, 
which  in  racks  are  generally  lost  by  falling  on  the  floor.  We 
object  to  racks,  unless  provided  with  a  shallow  box  under- 
neath, and  to  foddering  in  the  open  yards.  There  is  a  loss  in 
dragging  the  forage  to  them,  and  too  often  this  is  done  near 
a  herd  of  hungry  cattle,  which  gore  each  other  and  are 
scarcely  to  be  kept  at  bay  by  the  use  of  the  stoutest  goad. 
There  is  also  a  waste  of  the  hay  which  falls  while  the  cattle 
are  feeding,  and  which  is  largely  increased  in  muddy  yards ; 
added  to  which  the  animals  are  exposed  to  whatever  bad 
weather  there  may  be  while  eating,  which  is  at  all  times  to 
be  deprecated. 

Sheds. — Feeding  in  sheds  is  far  better,  and  in  many  in- 
stances may  take  the  place  of  the  stall  or  stable.  They  are 
frequently  and  very  properly  arranged  on  two  sides  of  the 
cattle  yard,  the  barn  forming  one  end,  and  the  other  opening 
to  the  south,  unless  this  is  exposed  to  the  prevailing  winds. 
This  arrangement  forms  a  good  protection  for  the  cattle,  and- 
the  sheds  being  connected  with  the  barn  is  of  importance  in 
economizing  the  labor  in  foddering.  The  racks  or  boxes  are 
placed  on  the  boarded  side  of  the  shed,  which  forms  the  outer 
side  of  the  yard,  and  they  are  filled  from  the  floor  overhead. 
If  the  space  above  is  not  sufficient  to  contain  the  necessary 
quantity  of  fodder,  it  should  be  taken  from  the  mows  or  scaf- 
folds of  the  bam,  and  carried  or  dragged  over  the  floor  to  the 
place  wanted.  The  floors  ought  to  be  perfectly  tight  to  avo^ 
waste,  and  the  sifting  of  the  particles  of  hay  or  seed  on  this 
cattle  or  sheep.  Unless  the  ground  under  the  shed  be  quite 
dry,  it  is  better  to  plank  it,  and  it  will  then  admit  of  cleaning 
with  the  same  facility  as  the  stables.  A  portion  of  the  shed 
may  be  partitioned  off*  for  close  or  open  stalls,  for  colts,  calves 
or  infirm  cattle,  and  cows  or  ewes  that  are  heavy  with  young. 


FARM   BVILDINOS.  251 

A  little  attention  of  this  kind,  will  frequently  save  the  life  of 
an  animal,  or  add  much  to  their  comfort  and  the  general 
economy  of  farm  management.  The  surplus  straw,  corn- 
stalks and  the  like,  can  be  used  for  bedding,  though  it  is  gene- 
rally preferable  to  have  them  cut  and  fed  to  the  cattle. 

WATER  FOR  THE  CATTLE  YARD 

Is  an  important  item,  and  if  the  expense  of  driving  the  ani- 
mals to  a  remote  watering  place,  the  waste  of  manure 
thereby  occasioned,  the  straying  of  cattle  and  sometimes  loss 
of  limbs  or  other  injury  resulting  from  their  being  forced  to 
go  down  icy  slopes  or  through  excessive  mud,  to  slake  their 
thirst — if  all  these  considerations  are  taken  into  account, 
they  will  be  found  annually  to  go  far  towards  the  expense  of 
supplying  water  in  the  yard,  where  it  would  at  all  times  be 
accessible.  All  animals  require  water  in  winter,  except  such 
as  have  a  full  supply  of  roots ;  and  though  they  sometimes 
omit  going  to  distant  and  inconvenient  places  where  it  is  to 
be  had,  they  may  nevertheless,  suffer  materially  for  the  want 
of  it.  When  it  is  not  possible  to  bring  a  stream  of  running 
water  into  the  yard,  or  good  water  is  not  easily  reached  by 
digging,  an  effectual  way  of  procuring  a  supply  through  most 
of  the,  year  is  by  the  construction  of 

Cisterns.  Where  there  is  a  compact  clay,  no  further 
preparation  is  necessary  for  stock  purposes,  than  to  excavate 
to  a  sufficient  size  ;  and  to  keep  up  the  banks  on  every  side, 
place  two  frames  of  single  joist  around  it  near  the  top  and 
bottom,  between  which  and  the  banks,  heavy  boards  or  plank 
may  be  set  in  an  upright  position,  reaching  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  earth  keeps  them  in  place  on  one  side,  and  the 
joist  prevents  their  falling.  They  require  to  be  only  tight 
enough  to  prevent  the  clay  from  washing  in.  No  appreciable 
quantity  of  water  will  escape  from  the  sides  or  bottom. 
We  have  used  one  for  years,  without  repairs  or  any  material 
wasting  of  water.  This  should  be  made  near  the  buildings  ; 
and  the  rains  carefully  conducted  by  the  eaves-troughs  and 
pipes  from  an  extensive  range,  will  afford  an  ample  supply. 
For  household  purposes,  one  should  be  made  with  more  care 
and  expense,  and  so  constructed  as  to  afford  pure  filtered 
water  at  all  times.  These  may  be  formed  in  various  ways, 
and  of  different  materials,  stone,  brick,  or  even  wood  ; 
though  the  two  former  are  preferable.  They  should  be  per- 
manently divided  into  two  apartments,  one  to  receive  the 
water  and  another  for  a  reservoir  to  contain  such  as  is  ready 


252  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

for  use.  Alternate  layers  of  gravel,  sand,  and  charcoal  at 
the  bottom  of  the  first,  and  sand  and  gravel  in  the  last,  are 
sufficient ;  the  water  being  allowed  to  pass  through  the 
several  layers  mentioned,  will  be  rendered  perfectly  free 
from  all  impurities.  Some  who  are  particularly  choice  in 
preparing  water,  make  use  of  filtering  stones,  but  this  is  not 
essential.  Occasional  cleaning  may  be  necessary,  and  the 
substitution  of  new  filtering  materials  will  at  all  times  keep 
them  sweet. 

THE  CARRIAGE  HOUSE,  STABLE  AND  GRANARY. 

The  carriage  house  and  horse  stable  sometimes  occupy  a 
distinct  building,  which  is  a  good  precaution  against  fire,  and 
where  this  is  the  case,  it  is  frequently  convenient  to  have  the 
upper  loft  for  a  gmnary.  The  propriety  of  having  this 
proof  against  rats  is  obvious.  Yet  it  should  be  capable  of 
thorough  ventilation  when  the  grain  is  damp  or  exposed  to 
injury  from  want  of  air.  Entire  cleanliness  of  the  premises, 
is  the  best  remedy  against  weevil  and  other  noxious  insects. 

The  com  crib, — If  there  be  more  Indian  corn  on  the 
premises  than  can  be  thinly  spread  over  an  elevated  dry 
floor,  the  corn  crib  for  storing  it  should  occupy  an  isolated 
position.  This  should  be  made  of  upright  lattice  work,  with 
a  far  projecting  roof,  and  sides  inclining  downwards  to  each 
other,  so  as  to  avoid  the  admission  of  rain.  The  corn  in  the 
cob  is  stored  in  open  bins  on  either  side,  leaving  ample 
room  in  the  centre  for  threshing  or  the  use  of  the  corn 
sheller.  Close  bins  may  occupy  the  ends  for  the  reception 
of  the  shelled  grain.  All  approach  from  rats  and  other  ver- 
min may  be  avoided  by  placing  the  building  on  posts,  with 
projecting  stones  or  sheet  iron  on  the  top,  and  so  high  that 
ihey  cannot  reach  it  by  jumping. 

A  TOOL  HOUSE  AND  WORK  SHOP  ought  always  to  have  a 
place  about  the  premises.  In  this  building,  all  the  minor 
tools  may  be  arranged  on  shelves,  or  in  appropriate  niches , 
where  they  can  at  once  be  found,  and  will  not  be  exposed  to 
theft.  Here  too  the  various  farming  tools  **may  be  repaired, 
which  can  be  anticipated  and  done  in  those  leisure  intervals^, 
which  often  occur.  Ample  shed  room  for  every  vehicle  and 
implement  about  the  farm,  should  not  be  wanting.  Their 
preservation  will  amply  repay  the  cost  of  such  slight  struc- 
tures as  may  be  required  to  house  them.  A  wagon,  plow, 
or  any  wooden  implement,  will  wear  out  sooner  by  exposure 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  253 

to  all  weathers  without  use,  than  by  careful  usage  with  proper 
protection. 

A  HORSE  POWER  Cither  stationary  or  moveable,  can  be 
made  to  contribute  greatly  to  the  economy  of  farming  opera- 
tions, where  there  is  much  grain  to  thresh,  or  straw,  hay  or 
corn  stalks  to  cut.  With  the  aid  of  this,  some  of  the  port- 
able mills  may  crush  and  grind  much  of  the  grain  required  for 
feeding.  Even  the  water  may  be  pumped  by  it  into  large 
troughs  for  the  use  of  cattle,  and  all  the  fuel  sawed,  thereby 
saving  more  expensive  in  labor. 

A  STEAMING  APPARATUS. 

Where  there  are  many  swine  to  fatten,  or  grain  is  to  be 
fed,  this  is  at  all  times  an  economical  appendage  to  the  farm. 
It  has  been  shown  from  several  experiments,  that  cattle  and 
sheep  will  generally  thrive  as  well  on  raw  as  on  cooked  roots  ; 
but  horses  do  better  on  the  latter,  and  swine  will  not  fatten 
on  any  other.  For  all  animals  excepting  store  sheep,  and 
perhaps  even  they  may  be  excepted,  grain  or  meal  is  better 
when  cooked.  Food  must  be  broken  up  before  the  various 
animal  organs  can  appropriate  it  to  nutrition ;  and  whatever 
is  done  towards  eftecting  this  object  before  it  enters  the 
stomach,  diminishes  the  necessity  for  the  expenditure  of  vital 
force  in  accomplishing  it,  and  thereby  enables  the  animal  to 
thrive  more  rapidly  and  do  more  labor,  on  a  given  amount. 
For  this  reason  we  apprehend,  there  may  have  been  some 
errors  undetected  in  the  experiments  in  feeding  sheep  and 
cattle  with  raw  and  cooked  roots,  which  results  in  placing 
them  apparently  on  a  par  as  to  their  value  for  this  purpose. 
The  crushing  or  grinding  of  the  grain  insures  more  perfect 
mastication,  and  is  performed  by  machinery  at  much  less 
expense,  than  by  the  animals  consuming  it.  The  steaming 
or  boiling  is  the  final  step  towards  its  easy  and  profitable 
assimilation  in  the  animal  economy.  With  a  capacious 
steaming-box  for  the  reception  of  the  food,  the  roots  and  meal, 
and  even  cut  hay,  straw  and  stalks  may  be  thrown  in  together, 
and  all  will  thus  be  most  effectually  prepared  for  nourish- 
ment. There  is  another  advantage  derivable  from  this 
practice.  The  food  might  at  all  times  be  given  at  the 
temperature  of  the  animal  system,  about  98°  of  Farenheit, 
and  the  animal  heat  expended  in  warming  the  cold  and 
sometimes  frozen  food,  would  be  avoided. 

The  steaming  apparatus  is  variously  constructed.  We 
have  used  one  consisting  of  a  circular  boiler  five  and  a  half 


254  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

feet  long  by  twenty  inches  diameter,  made  of  boiler  iron  and 
laid  lengthwise  on  a  brick  arch.  The  fire  is  placed  mider- 
neath  and  passes  through  the  whole  length  and  over  one  end, 
then  returns  in  contact  with  the  boiler  through  side  flues  or 
pockets,  where  it  entered  the  chinmey.  This  gives  an 
exposure  to  the  flame  and  heated  air  of  about  10  feet.  The 
upper  part  is  coated  with  l:>rick  and  mortar  to  retain  the  heat, 
and  three  small  test  cocks  are  applied  at  the  bottom,  middle 
and  upper  edge  of  the  exposed  end,  to  show  the  quantity  of 
water  in  it ;  and  two  large  stop  cocks  on  the  upper  side  for 
receiving  the  water  and  delivering  the  steam,  completes  the 
boiler.  The  steaming-box  is  oblong,  seven  or  eight  feet 
in  length,  by  about  four  feet  in  depth  and  width,  capable  of 
holding  60  or  70  bushels,  made  of  plank  grooved  together, 
and  clamped  and  keyed  with  four  setts  of  oak  joist.  We  also 
used  a  large  circular  tub,  strongly  bound  by  wagon  tire  and 
keyed,  and  holding  about  25  bushels.  The  covering  of  both 
must  be  fastened  securely  ;  but  a  safety  valve  is  allowed  tor 
the  escape  of  steam,  which  is  simply  a  one  and  a  half  inch 
auger  hole.  Into  these,  the  steam  is  conveyed  from  the 
boiler,  by  a  copper  tube,  attached  to  the  steam  delivery  cock 
for  a  short  distance,  when  it  is  continued  into  the  bottom  of 
the  box  and  tub  by  a  lead  pipe,  on  account  of  its  flexibility, 
and  to  avoid  injury  to  the  food  from  the  corrosion  of  the 
copper.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the  end  of  the  pipe  in  the 
steam iiig-box,  properly  guarded  by  a  metal  strainer,  to  prevent 
its  clogging  from  tlie  contents  of  the  box.  We  find  no  diffi- 
culty in  cooking  15  bushels  of  unground  Indian  corn  in  the 
tub,  in  the  course  of  three  or  tour  hours,  and  with  small 
expense  of  fuel.  Fifty  bushels  of  roots  could  be  perfectly 
cooked  in  the  box,  in  the  same  time.  For  swine,  iattening 
cattle  and  sheep,  milch  cows  and  working  horses,  and  perhaps 
ox^n,  we  do  not  doubt  a  large  amount  of  food  may  be  saved 
by  the  use  of  such  or  a  similar  cooking  apparatus.  The  box 
may  be  enlarged  to  treble  the  capacity  of  the  foregoing, 
without  prejudicing  the  operation,  and  oven  with  a  boiler  of 
the  same  dimensions,  but  it  would  take  a  longer  time  to 
effect  the  object.  If  the  boiler  were  increased  in  proportion  j 
to  the  box,  the  cooking  process  would  of  course  be  acccom- '" 
plished  in  the  same  time. 

The  materials  for  farm  buildings  we  have  assumed  to  be  of 
wood,  from  the  abundance  and  cheapness  of  this  material 
generally  in  the  United  States.  Yet  we  would  always  prefer 
when  not  too  expensive,  or  where  the  capital  could  be  spared, 


FARM   BUILDINGS.  255 

that  brick  or  stone  should  take  their  place.  They  are  more 
durable,  are  less  exposed  to  fire,  and  they  sustain  a  more 
equable  temperature  in  the  extremes  of  the  seasons.  Barns 
and,  sheds  cannot  like  houses,  be  conveniently  made  rat  proof, 
but  they  may  be  so  constructed  as  to  afford  them  few  hiding 
places,  where  they  will  be  out  of  the  reach  of  cats  and  terrier 
dogs,  which  arc  always  indispensable  around  infested  prem- 
ises. These  and  an  occasional  dose  of  arsenic,  carefully  and 
variously  disguised  will  keep  their  numbers  within  moderate 
bounds.  If  poison  be  given,  it  would  be  well  to  shut  up  the 
cats  and  terriers  for  three  or  four  days  until  the  object  is 
effected,  or  they  too  might  partake  of  it. 

LIGHTNING  RODS. 

In  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  our  American  summers,  thun- 
der showei-s  are  frequent  and  often  destructive  to  buildings. 
This  danger  is  much  increased  for  such  barns  as  have  just 
received  their  annual  stores  of  newly  cut  hay  and  grain. — 
The  humid  gases  driven  off  by  the  heating  and  sweating 
process,  which  immediatly  follows  their  accumulation  in 
closely  packed  masses,  offers  a  strong  attraction  to  electri- 
city, just  at  the  time  when  it  is  most  abundant.  It  is  then  an 
object  of  peculiar  importance  to  the  farmer  to  guard  his  build- 
ings with  properly  constructed  lightning  rods,  and  they  are  a 
cheap  mode  of  insurance  against  fire  from  this  cause,  as  the 
expense  is  trifling  and  the  security  great. 

It  is  a  principle  of  general  application,  that  a  rod  will 
protect  an  object  at  twice  the  distance  of  its  height,  above  any 
given  point,  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  its  upper  termination. 
Thus  a  rod  attached  to  one  side  of  a  chimney  of  four  feet 
diameter,  must  have  its  upper  point  two  feet  above  the  chim- 
ney to  protect  it.  The  height  above  the  ridge  must  be  at  least 
one  half  the  greatest  horizontal  distance  of  the  ridge  from  the 
perpendicular  rod. 

Materials  and  manner  of  construction. — The  rod  may  be 
constructed  of  soft,  round  or  square  iron,  the  latter  being 
preferable,  in  pieces  of  convenient  length  and  of  not  less  than 
4  o£  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  should  not  be  hooked  into 
each  other,  but  attached  either  by  screwing  the  ends  together, 
or  forming  a  point  and  socket  to  be  fastened  by  a  rivet,  so  that 
the  rod  when  complete,  will  appear  as  one  continuous  surface 
of  equal  size  throughout.  If  a  square  rod  be  used,  it  will  attract 
the  electricity  through  its  entire  length,  if  the  corners  be 
notched  mth  a   single   downward  stroke   of  a  sharp  cold 


256  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

chisel,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  inches.  Each  of  these 
will  thus  become  a  point  to  attract  and  conduct  the  electricity 
to  the  earth.  A  bundle  of  wires,  thick  ribbons,  or  tubes  of 
metal,  would  be  much  better  conductors  than  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  matter  in  the  solid,  round  or  square  rods,  as  the  con- 
ducting power  of  bodies,  is  in  the  ratio  of  their  surface.  No 
part  of  the  rod  should  be  painted,  as  its  efficiency  is  thereby 
greatly  impaired.  The  upper  extremity  may  consist  of  one, 
two  or  more  finely  drawn  points,  which  should  be  of  copper, 
silver  or  well  gilded  iron,  to  prevent  rusting.  The  lower  part 
of  the  rod,  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  should  terminate  in 
two  or  three  flattened,  divergent  branches,  leading  several 
feet  outwardly  from  the  building,  and  buried  to  the  depth  of 
perpetual  moisture  in  a  bed  of  charcoal.  Both  the  charcoal 
and  moisture  are  good  conductors,  and  will  ensure  the  passage 
of  the  electricity  into  the  ground,  and  away  from  the  pre- 
mises. The  rod  may  be  fastened  to  the  building  by  glass  or 
well  seasoned  wood,  boiled  in  linseed  oil,  then  well  baked  and 
covered  with  several  coats  of  copal  varnish. 

The  condiwtors  of  electricity  in  the  order  of  their  conduct- 
ing form,  are  copper,  silver,  gold,  iron,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  platina, 
charcoal,  black  lead  (plumbago,)  strong  acids,  soot  and  lamp- 
black, metallic  ores,  metallic  oxides,  diluted  acids,  saline  solu- 
tions, animal  fluids,  sea  water,  fresh  water,  ice  above  0°,  living 
vegetables,  living  animals,  flame,  smoke,  vapor  and  humid 
gases,  salts,  rarified  air,  dry  earth,  and  massive  minerals.  The 
non-conductors  in  their  order,  are  shellac,  amber,  resins, 
sulpher,  wax,  asphaltum,  glass,  and  all  vitrified  bodies  includ- 
ing crystallised,  transparent  minerals,  raw  silk,  bleached  silk, 
dyed  silk,  wool,  hair  and  feathers,  dry  gases,  dry  paper,  parch- 
ment and  leather,  baked  wood  and  dried  vegetables. 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  257 


CHAPTER   XIV 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS— PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDNIG, 
NUTRITION,  MANAGEMENT,  &c. 

The  principal  domestic  animals  reared  for  economical  pur- 
poses in  the  United  States,  are  Horned  or  neat  cattle,  the 
Horse,  the  Mule,  Sheep  and  Swine.  A  few  Asses  are  bred, 
but  for  no  other  object  than  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  jacks 
for  propagating  mules.  We  have  also  goats,  rabbits  and  the 
house  domestics,  the  dog  and  cat ;  the  two  former,  only  in 
very  limited  numbers,  but  both  the  latter  much  beyond  our 
legitimate  wants.  There  have  been  a  few  specimens  of  the 
Alpaca  imported,  and  an  arrangement  is  now  in  progress  for 
the  introduction  of  a  flock  of  several  hundred,  which  if  dis- 
tributed among  intelligent  and  wealthy  agriculturists,  as  pro- 
posed, will  test  their  value  for  increasing  our  agricultural 
resources.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  some  general  con- 
siderations connected  with  the  first  mentioned  and  most  im- 
portant of  our  domestic  animals. 

Their  number  as  shown  by  the  agricultural  statistics  col- 
lected in  1839,  by  order  of  our  General  Government,  was 
15,000,000  neat  cattle  ;  4,335,000  horses  and  mules,  (the 
number  of  each  not  being  specified;)  19,311,000  sheep ; 
and  26,300,000  swine.  There  is  much  reason  to  question 
the  entire  accuracy  of  these  returns,  yet  there  is  doubtless 
an  approximation  to  the  truth.  Sheep  have  greatly  increased 
since  that  period,  and  would  probably  number  the  present 
year  (1846,)  not  less  than  28,000,000  ;  and  if  our  own  man- 
ufactures continue  to  thrive,  and  we  should  moreover  become 
wool  exporters,  of  which  there  is  now  a  reasonable  prospect, 
an  accurate  return  for  1850,  will  undoubtedly  give  us  not  less 
than  35,000,000  for  the  entire  Union.  There  has  been  a 
great  increase  in  the  value  of  the  other  animals  enumerated, 
but  not  in  a  ratio  corresponding  with  that  of  sheep.     This  is 


268  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

not  only  manifest  in  their  numbers,  but  in  the  gradual  and 
steady  improvement  of  the  species.  It  may  be  safely  pre- 
dicted, that,  this  improvement  will  not  only  be  sustained,  but 
largely  increased,  for  there  are  some  intelligent  and  spirited 
breeders  to  be  found  in  every  section  of  the  country,  whose 
liheral  exertions  and  powerful  examples  are  doing  much  for 
this  object.  Wherever  intelligence  and  sound  judgment  are 
to  be  found,  it  will  be  impossible  long  to  resist  the  effects  of 
a  comparison  between  animals,  which  on  an  equal  quantity  of 
the  same  food,  with  the  same  attention  and  in  the  same  time, 
will  return  50,  20,  or  even  a  less  per  cent,  more  in  their  in- 
trinsic value  or  marketable  product,  than  the  ordinary  class. 
This  improvement  has  relatively  been,  most  conspicuous  in 
the  western  and  southern  states,  not  that  the  present  average 
of  excellence  in  their  animals  surpasses  or  even  reaches  that 
of  the  north  and  east ;  but  the  latter  have  long  been  pursu- 
ing this  object,  with  more  or  less  energy,  and  they  have  for 
many  years  had  large  numbers  of  excellent  specimens  of  each 
variety  ;  while  with  few  exceptions,  if  we  exclude  the  blood- 
horse  or  racing  nag,  the  former  have  till  recently,  paid  com- 
paratively little  attention  to  the  improvement  of  their  domestic 
animals.  The  spirit  for  improvement  through  extensive  sec- 
tions, is  now  awakened,  and  the  older  settled  portions  of  the 
country  may  hereafter  expect  competitors,  whose  success 
will  be  fully  commensurate  with  their  own.  Before  going 
into  the  management  of  the  different  varieties,  we  will  give 
some  general  principles  and  remarks  applicable  to  the  treat- 
ment of  all. 

The  purpose  for  which  animals  are  required,  is  first  of  con- 
sequence to  be  determined,  before  selecting  such  as  may  be 
necessary  either  for  breeding  or  use.  Throughout  the  north- 
eastern  states,  cows  for  the  dairy,  oxen  for  the  yoke,  and  both 
for  the  butcher,  are  wanted.  In  much  of  the  west  and  south, 
beef  alone  is  the  principal  object,  while  the  dairy  is  neglected, 
and  the  work  of  the  ox  is  seldom  relied  on  except  for  occa- 
sional drudgery.  Sheep  may  be  wanted  almost  exclusively 
for  the  fleece,  or  for  the  fleece  and  heavy  mutton,  or  in  the 
neighborhood  of  markets,  for  large,  early  lambs.  The  pas-  ^ 
tures  and  winter  food,  climate  and  other  conditions,  present 
additional  circumstances,  which  should  be  well  considered 
before  determining  on  the  particular  breed,  either  of  cattle 
or  sheep,  that  will  best  promote  the  interest  of  the  farmer. 
The  kind  of  work  for  which  the  horse  may  be  wanted, 
whether  as  a  roadster,  for  the  saddle,  as  a  heavy  team  horse 


DOMESTIC   ANiMALd.  259 

or  the  horse  of  all  work,  must  be  first  decided,  before  select- 
ing the  form  or  character  of  the  animal.  The  range  of  pig 
excellence  is  more  circumscribed,  as  it  is  only  necessary  to 
breed  such  as  will  yield  the  greatest  amount  of  valuable  car- 
cass, within  the  shortest  time,  and  with  the  least  expense. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    BREEDING. 

All  breeding  is  founded  on  the  principle,  that  like  hegets 
like.  This  is  however  liable  to  some  exceptions,  and  is  much 
more  generally  true  when  breeding  down  than  when  breeding 
up.  If  two  animals  which  can  never  be  exactly  similar  in 
all  respects,  are  requisite  to  the  perpetuation  of  the  species, 
it  necessarily  results,  that  the  progeny  must  differ  in  a  more 
or  less  degree  from  each  parent.  With  wild  animals  and 
such  of  the  domestic  as  are  allowed  to  propagate  with- 
out the  interference  of  art,  and  whose  habits,  treatment 
and  food  are  nearly  similar  to  their  natural  condition,  the 
change  through  successive  generations  is  scarcely  percepti- 
ble. It  is  only  when  we  attempt  to  improve  their  good  qua- 
lities, that  it  is  essential,  carefully  to  determine  and  rigidly 
to  apply  what  are  adopted  as  the  present  scientific  principles 
of  breeding.  We  cannot  believe  that  we  have  penetrated 
beyond  the  mere  threshold  of  this  art.  Unless  then,  we 
launch  into  experiments,  which  are  necessarily  attended  with 
uncertainty,  our  duty  will  be,  to  take  for  our  guide  the  most 
successful  practice  of  modern  times,  until  further  discoveries 
enable  us  to  modify  or  add  to  such  as  are  already  known  and 
adopted.  We  may  lay  down  then  as  the  present  rules  for 
this  art,  1st.  That  the  animals  selected  for  breed,  should 
unite  in  themselves  all  the  good  qualities  we  wish  to  per- 
petuate in  the  oflTspring.  2d.  These  qualities,  technically 
called  points^  should  be  in-bred  in  the  animals  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, by  a  long  line  of  descent  from  parents  similarly 
constituted.  The  necessity  for  this  rule  is  evident  from  the 
fact,  that  in  mixing  different  species,  and  especially  mongrels, 
with  a  long  established  breed,  the  latter  will  most  strongly 
stamp  the  issue  with  its  own  peculiarities.  This  is  forcibly 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  Devon  cattle,  an  ancient  race, 
whose  color,  form  and  characteristics  are  strikingly  perpetu- 
ated, sometimes  to  the  sixth  or  even  a  later  generation.  So 
far  is  this  principle  carried  by  many  experienced  breeders, 
that  they  will  use  an  animal  of  indifferent  external  appear- 
ance, but  of  approved  descent,  (blood,)  in  preference  to  a 
decidedly  superior  one,  whose  pedigree  is  imperfect.    3d.  All 


266  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

the  conditions  of  soil,  situation,  climate,  treatment  and  food 
should  be  favorable  to  the  object  sought.  4th.  Asa  general 
rule,  the  female  should  be  relatively  larger  than  the  male. 
This  gives  ample  room  for  the  perfect  development  of  the 
foetus,  easy  parturition,  and  a  large  supply  of  milk  for  the 
offspring,  at  a  period  in  its  existence,  when  food  has  a  greater 
influence  in  perfecting  character  and  form  than  at  any  sub- 
sequent time.  5th.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  may  be  made, 
when  greater  size  is  required  than  can  be  obtained  from  the 
female,  and  especially,  when  more  vigor  and  hardiness  of 
constitution  are  desirable.  For  this  purpose,  strong  mascu- 
line development  in  the  sire  are  proper,  and  if  otherwise 
unattainable,  something  of  coarseness  may  be  admitted,  as 
this  may  be  afterwards  corrected,  and  nothing  will  atone  for 
want  of  constitution  and  strength.  6th.  Pairing  should  be 
with  a  strict  reference  to  correcting  the  imperfections  of 
one  animal,  by  a  corresponding  excellence  in  the  other. 
7th.  Breeding  in-and-in^  or  propagating  from  animals  nearly 
allied,  may  be  tolerated  under  certain  circumstances,  though 
seldom ;  and  only  in  extreme  cases  between  those  of  the 
same  generation  as  brother  and  sister.  When  the  animal 
possesses  much  stamina  and  peculiar  merit,  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  perpetuate  in  the  breed,  it  may  be  done  either  in  the 
ascending  or  descending  line,  as  in  breeding  the  son  to  the 
parent,  or  the  parent  to  his  own  progeny.  This  has  been 
practised  with  decided  advantage,  and  in  some  cases  has 
even  been  continued  successively  as  low  as  the  sixth  gene- 
ration. 8th.  It  is  always  better  to  avoid  close  relationship, 
by  the  selection  of  equally  meritorious  stock-getters  of  the 
same  breed,  from  other  sources.  9th.  Wholesome,  nutri- 
tious food,  at  all  times  sufficient  to  keep  the  animals  steadily 
advancing,  should  be  provided,  but  they  must  never  be 
allowed  to  get  fat.  Of  the  two  evils,  starving  is  preferable 
to  surfeit.  Careful  treatment  and  the  absence  of  disease 
must  be  always  fully  considered.  10th.  Animals  should 
never  be  allowed  to  breed  either  too  early  or  too  late  in  life. 
These  periods  cannot  be  arbitrarily  laid  down,  but  must 
depend  on  their  time  of  maturity,  the  longevity  of  the  breed, 
and  the  stamina  of  the  individual,  lltli.  No  violent  cross 
or  mixing  of  distinct  breeds  should  ever  be  admitted  for  the 
purposes  of  perpetuation,  asof  cattle  of  diverse  sizes;  horses 
of  unlike  characters  ;  the  Merino  and  long  wools,  or  even 
the  long  or  short  and  the  middle  wools.     For  carcass  and 


DOMESTIC   ANDIALS.  261 

constitution,  these  crosses  are  unexceptionable;  and  it  is  a 
practice  very  common  in  this  country,  and  judicious  enough 
where  the  whole  produce  is  early  destined  for  the  shambles. 
But  when  the  progeny  are  designed  for  breeders,  the  prac- 
tice should  be  branded  with  unqualified  reprehension. 

THE  GENERAL  FORM  AND  CHARACTERISTICS  OF 
DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Within  certain  limits,  these  may  be  reduced  to  a  common 
standard.  All  animals  should  have  a  good  head,  well  set  up; 
a  clean  fine  muzzle,  and  a  bright,  clear  and  full,  yet  per- 
fectly placid  eye.  With  the  exception  of  the  dog  and  cat, 
whose  original  nature  is  ferocity,  and  whose  whole  life, 
unless  diverted  from  their  natural  instincts,  is  plunder  and 
prey  ;  and  the  jockey  race-horse,  which  is  required  to  take 
the  purse,  at  any  hazard  of  life  or  limb  to  the  groom;  a  mild 
quiet  eye  is  indispensable  to  the  profitable  use  of  the  domes- 
tic brute.  The  neck  should  be  well  formed,  not  too  long, 
tapering  to  its  junction  with  the  head,  and  gradually  enlarging 
to  a  firm,  well  expanded  attachment  to  the  back,  shoulders 
and  breast.  The  back  or  chine  should  be  short,  straight  and 
broad ;  the  ribs  springing  out  from  the  back  bone  nearly  at 
right  angles,  giving  a  rounded  appearance  to  the  carcass, 
and  reaching  well  behind  to  a  close  proximity  to  the  hip  ; 
tail  well  set  on,  and  full  at  its  junction  with  the  body,  yet 
gradually  tapering  to  fineness  ;  thighs,  fore-arms  and  crop, 
well  developed  ;  projecting  breast  or  brisket ;  the  fore-legs 
straight,  and  hind  ones  properly  bent,  strong  and  full  where 
attached  to  the  carcass,  but  small  and  tapering  below  ;  good 
and  sound  joints;  dense,  strong  bones,  but  not  large;  plenty  of 
fine  muscle  in  the  right  places;  and  hair  or  wool  fine  and  soft. 
The  chest  in  all  animals  should  be  full,  for  it  will  be  invaria- 
bly found,  that  only  such  will  do  the  most  work,  or  fatten 
easiest  on  the  least  food. 

The  Lungs. — From  the  above  principle,  founded  on  long 
experience  and  observation,  Cline  inferred,  and  he  has  laid 
it  down  as  an  incontrovertible  position,  that  the  lungs  should 
always  be  large  ;  and  Youatt  expresses  the  same  opinion. 
This  is  undoubtedly  correct  as  to  working  beasts,  the  horse 
and  the  ox,  which  require  full  and  free  respiration,  to  enable 
them  to  sustain  great  muscular  efforts.  But  later  physiolo- 
gists, Playfair  and  others,  perhaps  from  closer  and  more  accu- 
rate observations,  have  assumed  that  the  fattening  propensity 
is  in  the  ratio  of  the  smallness  of  the  lungs.     Earl  Spencer 


262  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

has  observed,  that  this  is  fully  shown  in  the  pig,  the  sheep, 
the  ox  and  the  horse,  whose  aptitude  to  fatten  and  smallness 
of  lungs,  are  in  the  order  enumerated.  This  position  is  fur- 
ther illustrated,  by  the  different  breeds  of  the  same  classes  of 
animals.  The  Leicester  sheep  have  smaller  lungs  than  the 
South  Down ;  and  it  was  found  in  an  experiment  made  on 
Lord  Ducie's  example  farm,  that  a  number  of  the  former, 
on  a  given  quantity  of  food,  and  in  the  same  time,  reached 
28  lbs.  a  quarter,  while  the  South  Downs  with  a  greater 
consumption  of  food,  attained  in  the  same  period,  only 
18  lbs.  The  Chinese  pigs  have  much  smaller  lungs  than 
the  Irish,  and  the  former  will  fatten  to  a  given  weight  on  a 
much  less  quantity  of  food  than  the  latter.  (Playfair.)  The 
principle  would  seem  to  be  corroborated  by  the  fact,  that 
animals  generally  fatten  faster  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  food  they  consume,  as  they  advance  towards  a  certain* 
stage  of  maturity  ;  during  all  which  time,  the  secretion  of 
internal  fat  is  gradually  compressing  the  size,  by  reducing 
the  room  for  the  action  of  the  lungs.  Hence  the  advantage 
of  carrying  the  fattening  beast  to  an  advanced  point,  by 
which  not  only  the  quality  of  carcass  is  improved,  but  the 
quantity  is  relatively  greater  for  the  amount  of  food  con- 
sumed. These  views  are  intimately  connected  and  fully 
correspond,  with  the  principles  of 

RESPIRATION.  IN   ANIMALS. 

From  careful  experiments,  it  has  been  found,  that  all  ani- 
mals daily  consume  a  much  larger  quantity  of  food  than  the 
aggregate  of  what  may  have  been  retained  in  the  system, 
added  to  what  has  been  expelled  in  the  foeces  and  urine,  and 
what  has  escaped  by  perspiration.  Boussingault,  who  com- 
l)ines  the  characteristics  of  an  ingenious  chemist,  a  vigilant 
observer  and  a  practical  agriculturist,  made  an  experiment 
with  a  '*  milch-cow  and  a  full-grown  horse,  which  were  pla- 
ced in  stalls  so  contrived  that  the  droppings  and  the  urine 
could  be  collected  without  loss.  Before  being  made  the  sub- 
jects of  ex|>criment,  the  animals  were  ballasted  or  fed  for  a 
month  with  the  same  ration  that  was  furnished  to  them,  during^, 
the  three  days  and  three  nights  which  they  passed  in  the  ex- 
perimental stalls.  During  the  month,  the  weight  of  the  ani- 
mals did  not  vary  sensibly,  a  circumstance  which  happily 
enables  us  to  assume  that  neither  did  the  weight  vary  during 
the  seventy -two  hours  when  they  were  under  especial  obser- 
vation. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  263 

"  The  cow  was  foddered  with  after- math,  hay  and  potatoes  ; 
the  horse  with  the  same  hay  and  oats.  The  quantities  of 
forage  were  .accurately  weighed,  and  their  precise  degree  of 
moislncss  and  their  composition  were  determined  from  ave- 
rage  samples.  The  water  drunk  was  measured,  its  saline 
and  earthy  constituents  having  been  {)rcviously  ascertained. 
The  excrcmentitious  matters  passed  were  of  course  collected 
with  the  greatest  care ;  the  excrements,  the  urine,  and  the 
milk  were  weighed,  and  the  constitution  of  the  whole  estima- 
ted from  elementary  analyses  of  average  specimens  of  each. 
The  results  of  the  two  experiments  are  given  in  the  table  on 
the  next  page. 

**  The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  that  are  not  accounted  for  in 
the  sum  of  the  products  have  not  disappeared  in  the  precise 
proportions  requisite  to  form  water ;  the  excess  of  hydrogen 
amounts  to  as  many  as  from  13  to  15  dwts.  It  is  probable  that 
this  hydrogen  of  the  food  became  changed  into  water  by  com- 
bining during  respiration  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air." 


264 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


FOOD    CONSUMED    BY    THE    HORSE    IN    24    HOURS. 


Weight  in 
tb«  wet 
sUte. 

Weight  in 
the  dry 
state. 

EleraenUry  matter  in  the  food. 

Forage. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Ib.oz.dtrt. 
0  10  7 
0      3    18 

Oxygen. 
Ib.oz.dwt. 
6      8      8 
1    10    14 

Salts  and 
Azote.         Earths. 

Hay, 

OaU, 

WnUsr,     .... 

lbs. 
30 
6 
43 

lbs.    oz. 
17      4 
6      3 

lbs.    oz. 
7     H 
3      7 

Ib.oz.dwt    lb.  oz.  dwt. 

0      3      3      1      6    14 

0      1      7      0      3    10 

..         [008 

Total,   .... 

69 

S»      6 

10      6 

1      3      6 

8      7      3 

0      4      9|     1      9    13 

PRODUCTS    VOIDED    BY    THE    HORSE    IN    24    HOURS. 


Weight  in 

the  wet 

state. 

Weight  in 
the  dry 
state. 

Elementary  matter  in 

the  products. 

Prod  acts. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Azote. 

Salts  and 
Earths. 

Urine,     .... 
Excrements,    •    . 

lb.oz.dwt. 
3      6    16 

38      3      3 

Ib.oz.dwt. 
9      9    14 
9      6      6 

lb.  oz.dwt. 
0      3    10 
3      7    17 

Ib.oz.dwt. 
0      0      7 
0      6     16 

Ib.oz.dwt. 
0  1  3 
3      6    14 

lb.  oz.dwt. 
0  1  4 
0      3    10 

lb.  oz.  dwt. 

0  3    10 

1  6    10 

Total,       -    -    - 
Total  matter  of  > 
the  food,    .     J 

71      8    17 

69      0      0 

10      3      0 
33      6      0 

3    11       7 
10      6      0 

0  6      2 

1  3      6 

3      7     16 

8      7      2 

0      3    14 

0      4      9 

1  10  0 
I      9    13 

Difference,  •    -    - 

87      3      3 

13      3      0 

6      6    13 

0      8      3 

4     11       6 

0      0    16 

0      U      8 

WATER   CONSUMED  BY  THE 
HORSE  IN  24  HOURS. 


With  the  hay,      • 

With  the  oats,      • 

Taken  aa  dnnk,  • 

Total  consumed. 


I  lbs.    oz. 
3       3 
0      14 


WATER    VOIDED    BY    THE 
HORSE    IN    24    HOURS. 


With  the  urine, 
With  the  excrements. 


Total  voided,    - 
Water  consumed, 


Wafer  exhaled  by  pulmonary  and  cutaneous  transpiration. 


lbs. 

oz. 

3 

6 

33 

8 

26 

M 

38 

4 

FOOD    CONSUMED    BY    THE    COW    IN    24    HOURS. 


Potatoes,  -  - 
After  math  hay, 
Water,    •    -    - 


Weight  in 

the  wet 

state. 


Ih.  oz.dwt, 
40  3  6 
30    1      2 

IfiO    0 


Weight  in 
the  dry 

state. 


Ib.oz.dwt. 
11  3  1 
16    II      0 


Elementary  matter  of  the  food. 


lb.  oz.dwt. 
4  11  3 
7    11     11 


Hydrogen. 


Ib.oz.dwt. 
0  7  16 
0    11      7 


Oxygen. 


Ib.oz.dwt. 
4  10  17 
6    10    17 


Ib.oz.dwt. 
0  1  12 
0      4    17 


Salts  and 
Earths. 


lb. 

oz. 

dwt. 

0 

6 

13 

1 

8 

6 

0 

1 

13 

PRODUCTS    VOIDED    BY    THE    COW    IN    24    HOURS. 


Weight  in 

the  wet 

state. 

Elementary  matter  in 

the  products. 

Producta. 

the  dry 
state. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 
Ib.oz.dwt. 
4      0      9 
0      8      3 
0     10      6 
■ft      6    18 
10      9     14 

Azote. 
Ib.ozdwt. 
0      3    19 
0      1       3 
0      1      9 

Salta  and 
Earths 

Sicremants, 

Jffi.-. : ;  :  : 

lb.  oz.dwt. 
76    1      9 
31  11     13 
33  10    10 

120  U     11 

390    3       7 

Ib.oz.dwt. 

10      e    13 
3      6    17 
3      1      0 

Ib.oz.dwt 
4      7      0 

0  8      7 

1  8      3 

Ib.oz.dwt 
0      6    13 
0      0    16 
0      3      3 

0  10    13 

1  7      3 
0      8     10 

Hi.  oz.  dwt. 
I  3  « 
I  0  6 
0      1      16 

Total.  ...     - 
"   maftei  of  food, 

16      4      9 
38      1       1 
11      8    13 

6    11     10 
13    10    13 
6    11      3 

9      6    11 

0      6      9 

3  6  10 
3      4      11 

Difference.       -    - 

99    8    16 

6      3     16 

0      0    18 

0      0      19 

WATER    CONSUMED    BY    THE 
COW    IN   24    HOURS. 


potaK 
With  the  hay. 
Taken  as  drink. 


Total  consumed, 

Water  paised  off  by  pulmonary  and  cutaneoue  transpintion. 


WATER    VOIDED    BY    THE 
COW    IN   24    HOURS. 


With  the  excrements, 
With  the  urine,  .  . 
With  the  milk,       •    • 

Total  voided,      •    - 
Water  contumed,  -    . 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  265 

We  here  perceive  a  large  loss  of  water,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
6lc.  Nearly  all  this  loss  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  escaped  by 
respiration,  while  most  of  the  water,  oxygen,  nitrogen  and 
salts,  passed  off  in  perspiration.  In  further  illustration  of  the 
subject  of  respiration,  Liebig  says,  "  from  the  accurate  de- 
termination of  the  quantity  of  carbon  daily  taken  into  the 
system  in  the  food,  as  well  as  of  that  proportion  of  it  which 
passes  out  of  the  body  in  the  fceces  and  urine,  unburned,  that 
is,  in  some  form  uncombined  with  oxygen,  it  appears  that  an 
adult  taking  moderate  exercise,  consumes  13.9  oz.  of  carbon 
daily."  The  foregoing  arc  facts  in  the  animal  economy,  ca- 
pable of  vast  practical  bearing  in  the  management  of  our 
domestic  animals.  But  before  following  out  these  principles 
to  their  application,  let  us  briefly  examine 

THE   EFFECTS    OF  RESPIRATION. 

We  have  seen  from  the  experiment  of  Boussingault,  that 
there  is  a  loss  of  6  lbs.  6  oz.  of  carbon,  and  8  oz.  of  hydrogen 
in  the  food  of  the  horse,  and  something  less  in  that  of  the 
cow,  every  24  hours,  which  has  not  been  leil  in  the  system, 
nor  has  it  escaped  by  the  evacuations.     What  has  become  o( 
so  large  an  amount  of  solid  matter  ?     It  has  escaped  through 
the  lungs  and  been  converted  into   air.     The  carbon  and 
hydrogen  of  the  food  have  undergone  those  various  trans- 
formations which  are  peculiar  to  the  animal  economy,  diges- 
tion, assimilation,  &;c.,  which  it  is  not  necessary,  nor  will 
our  limits  permit  us  here  to  explain ;  and  they  appear  at  last 
in  the  veinous  blood,  which  in  the  course  of  its  circulation,  is 
brought  into  the  cells  of  the  lungs.     The  air  inhaled,  is  sent 
through  every  part  of  their  innumerable  meshes,  and  is  there 
separated  from  the  blood,  only  by  the  delicate  tissues  or  mem- 
branes which  enclose  it.    A  portion  of  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen escape  from  the  blood  into  the  air-ceils,  and  at  the  instant 
oi'  their  contact  with  the  air,  they  eflect  a  chemical  union 
with  its  oxygen,  forming  carbonic  acid   and  the    vapor  of 
water,  which  is  then  expired,  and  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen 
is  inhaled.     This  operation  is  again  repeated,  through  every 
successive  moment  of  animal  existence.     Besides  other  pur- 
poses which  it  is  probably  designed  to  subserve,  but  which 
have  hitherto  eluded  the  keenest  research  of  chemical  physi- 
ology, one  obvious  result  of  it  is,  the  elevation  of  the  tempra- 
ture  of  the  animal  system.     By  the  ever-operating  laws  of 
nature;  this  chemical  union  of  two  bodies  in  the  formation  of 
a  third,  disengages  latent  heat,  which  taking  place  in  contact 
L 


266  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

with  the  blood,  is  by  it,  diffused  throughout  the  whole  frame. 
The  effect  is  precisely  analogous  to  the  combustion  of  fuel, 
oils,  &c.  in  the  open  air. 

Perspiralion  is  the  counteracting  agent  which  modifies  this 
result,  and  prevents  the  injurious  effects  which  under  exposure 
to  great  external  heat,  would  insure  certain  destruction.  And 
this  too,  it  will  have  been  seen,  is  provided  at  the  expense  of 
the  animal  food.  When  from  excessive  heat,  caused  by  vio- 
lent exercise  or  otherwise,  by  which  respiration  is  accelerated 
and  the  animal  temperature  becomes  elevated,  the  papillte 
of  the  skin  pour  the  limpid  fluid  through  their  innumerable 
ducts,  which  in  its  conversion  into  vapor,  seize  upon  the  ani- 
•  .1  heat  and  remove  it  from  the  system,  producing  that  de- 
icious  coolness  so  grateful  to  the  laboring  man  and  beast  in  a 
sultry  summer's  day.  These  two  opposing  principles,  like 
the  antagonistic  operations  of  the  regulator  in  mechanics, 
keep  up  a  perfect  balance  in  the  vital  machine,  and  enable 
the  entire  division  of  the  animal  creation  distinguished  as 
w'lrm  blooded,  including  man  and  the  brute,  all  the  feathered 
tribes,  the  whale,  the  seal,  the  walrus,  <fec.,  to  maintain  an 
equilibrium  of  temperature,  whether  under  the  equator  or  the 
poles,  on  the  peaks  of  Chimborazo,  the  burning  sands  of 
Zahara,  or  plunged  in  the  depths  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  connexion  between  the  size  of  the  lungs,  and  the  ap- 
titude of  animals  to  fatten,  will  be  more  apparent  from  the 
fact,  that  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  which  are  abstracted, 
constitute  two  of  the  only  three  elements  of  fat.  The  lar- 
ger size,  the  fuller  play,  and  the  greater  activity  of  the  lung?, 
by  exhausting  more  of  the  materials  of  fat,  must  necessarily 
diminish  its  formation  in  the  animal  system  ;  unless  it  can 
'■■'.',  shown,  which  has  never  yet  been  done,  that  the  removal  of 
:i  })orton  of  the  fat-forming  principles,  accelerates  the  assimi- 
Ictlion  of  the  remainder. 

The  f(X)d  which  supplies  resjnration  in  the  herbiverous  ani- 
mals, ajlcr  they  are  deprived  of  the  milk  which  furnishes  it 
in  abjmdance,  is  the  starch,  gum,  sugar,  vegetable  fats  and 
oi's,  which  exist  in  the  vegetables,  grain  and  roots  which 
they  consume  ;  and  in  certain  cases  where  there  is  a  defii- 
ciency  of  other  food,  it  is  sparingly  furnished  in  woody  and 
cellular  fibre.  All  these  substances  constitute  the  principal 
part  of  dry  vegetable  food,  and  are  made  up  of  these  elements, 
irhich  in  starch,  gum^  cane-sugar  and  cellular  fibre,  exist  in 
precisely  the  same  proportions,  viz :  44  per  cent,  of  carbon, 
<5.2  of  hydrogen  and  49.8  of  oxygen.     Grape  sugar,  woody 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  267 

fibre,  and  vegetable  and  animal  fats  and  oils  are  made  up  of 
the  same  elements,  but  in  different  proportions,  the  last  con- 
taining much  more  carbon  and  hydrogen  than  those  above 
specified.  In  the  fattening  animals,  il  is  supposed  the  vegeta- 
ble fats  and  oils  are  immediately  transferred  to  the  fat  cells, 
undergoing  only  such  slight  modification  as  perfectly  adapts 
them  to  the  animal  economy,  while  respiration  is  supplied  by 
the  other  enumerated  vegetable  matters.  If  these  last  arc  taken 
into  the  stomach  beyond  the  necessary  demand  for  its  object, 
they  too  are  converted  by  the  animal  functions  into  fat,  and 
are  stored  up  in  the  system  for  future  use.  But  if  the  supply 
of  the  latter  is  insufficient  for  respiration,  it  first  appropriates 
the  vegetable  fat  contained  in  the  food  ;  if  this  is  deficient,  it 
draws  on  the  accumulated  stores  of  animal  fat  already  secre- 
ted in  the  system,  and  when  these  two  are  exhausted,  it  sei- 
zes upon  what  is  contained  in  the  tissues  and  muscle.  When 
the  animal  commences  drawing  upon  its  own  resources  for 
the  support  of  its  vital  functions,  deterioration  begins;  and  if 
long  continued,  great  emaciation  succeeds,  which  is  soon 
Ibllowed  by  starvation  and  death.  The  carniverous  animals 
are  furnished  with  their  respiratory  excretions,  from  the  ani- 
mal fat  and  fibre  which  exist  in  their  food,  and  which  the 
herbivora:!  had  previously  abstracted  from  the  vegetable 
creation. 

The  circumstances  which  augment  respiration  are  exercise, 
cold  and  an  abundant  supply  of  food.  Exercise,  besides 
exhausting  the  materials  of  f^at,  produces  a  waste  of  fibre  and 
tissue,  the  muscular  and  nitrogenized  parts  of  the  animal 
system  ;  and  it  is  obvious  from  the  foregoing  principles,  that 
cold  requires  a  correspor.ding  demand  for  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen to  keep  uj)  the  vital  warmth.  The  consumption  of  food 
to  the  fullest  extent  required  for  invigorating  the  frame,  cre- 
ates a  desire  for  activity  and  it  insensibly  induces  full  respi- 
ration. The  well-fed,  active  man  unconsciously  draws  a 
full,  strong  breath  ;  while  the  abstemious  and  the  feeble, 
unwittingly  use  it  daintily,  as  if  it  were  a  choice  commodity 
not  to  be  lavishly  expended.  If  the  first  be  observed  when 
sleep  has  effectually  arrested  volition,  the  expanded  chest 
will  be  seen  heaving  with  the  long-drawn  sonorous  breath  ; 
while  that  of  the  latter  will  exhibit  the  gentle  repose  of  the 
infant  on  its  mother's  breast.  The  difference  between  the 
food  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  polar  and  equatorial  regions,  is 
strikingly  illustrative  of  the  demands  both  for  breathing  and 


268  AMERICAN    AORICrLTURE. 

perspiration.  The  latter  are  almost  destitute  of  clothing, 
and  subsist  on  their  light  juicy  tropical  fruits,  which  contain 
scarcely  12  per  cent,  of  carbon,  yet  furnish  all  the  elements 
for  abundant  perspiration  ;  the  latter  are  imbedded  in  furs, 
and  devour  gallons  of  train  oil  or  its  equivalent  of  fat,  which 
contains  nearly  80  per  cent.  <^f  carbon,  that  is  burnt  up  in 
respiration  to  maintain  a  necessary  warmth.  The  bear 
retires  to  his  den  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  loaded  with  fat, 
which  he  has  accumulated  from  the  rich,  oily  mast  abound- 
ing in  the  woods  in  autumn.  There  he  lies  for  months, 
snugly  coiled  and  perfectly  dormant  ;  the  thickness  of  his 
shaggy  coat,  his  dry  bed  of  leaves  and  well  protected  den 
effectually  guarding  him  from  cold,  which  in  addition  to  his 
want  of  exercise,  draw  slightly  upon  respiration  to  keep  up 
the  vital  heat.  When  the  stores  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
contained  in  the  fat  are  expended,  his  hunger  and  cold  com- 
pel him  to  leave  his  winter  quarters,  again  to  wander  in 
pursuit  of  food.  Many  of  the  swallow  tribes  in  like  man- 
ner, hybernate  in  large  hollow  trees,  and  for  months  eke  out 
a  torpid,  scarcely  perceptible  existence,  independent  of  food. 
Activity  and  full  respiration  on  the  return  of  spring,  demand 
a,  support  which  isfurnisiied  in  the  myriads  of  tlies  they  daily 
consume.  The  toad  and  frog  have  repeatedly  been  found  in 
a,  torpid  state,  embedded  in  lime-stones,  sand-stones  and  the 
breccias,  where  they  were  probably  imprisoned  for  thou- 
sands of  years  without  a  morsel  of  food  ;  yet  when  exposed 
lo  the  warmth  of  the  vital  air  and  the  stimulus  of  its  oxygen, 
they  have  manifested  all  the  activity  of  their  species.  This 
they  are  enabled  to  sustain  only  by  an  enormous  consump- 
tion of  insects.  Dr.  Piayfair  states,  that  in  an  experiment 
made  by  Lord  Ducie,  100  sheep  were  placed  in  a  shed,  and 
ate  20  ])ounds  of  Swedes  turneps  each  per  day  ;  another  100 
were  placed  in  the  open  air,  and  ate  25  pounds  ])er  day;  yet 
the  former,  which  had  one-fifth  less  food,  weighed,  after  a 
few  weeks,  three  pounds  more  per  head  than  the  latter.  Me 
then  i'e^\  five  sheep  in  the  open  air  between  the  21st  Novem- 
ber and  1st  December.  They  consumed  00  pounds  of  footi 
j)er  day,  the  temperature  being  at  44  degrees;  and  at  thd 
end  of  this  time  they  weighed  two  pounds  less  than  when 
first  exposed.  Five  sheep  were  then  placed  under  a  shed, 
and  allowed  to  run  about  in  a  temperature  of  40  degrees.  At 
first  they  consumed  82  pounds  per  day  ;  then  70  pounds, 
and  at  the  end  of  the    lime   they  had  gained  23  pounds. 


DOMESTIC    AKiMAtS.  269 

Again,  fiveslieep  were  placed  under  a  shed  as  before,  and 
not  allowed  to  take  any  exercise.  They  ate  at  first  ^4 
pounds  of  food  per  day,  then  58  pounds,  and  increased  in 
weight  30  pounds.  Lastly,  five  sheep  were  kept  quiet  and 
covered,  and  in  the  dark.  They  ate  3-5  pounds  per  day,  and 
increased  eight  pounds. 

Mr.  Childors  states,  that  80  I^eicester  sheep  in  the  open 
field,  consumed  50  baskets  of  cut  turneps  per  day,  besides 
oil-cake.  On  putting  them  in  a  shed,  they  were  immediately 
able  to  consume  only  30  baske.s,  and  soon  after  but  25, 
being  only  half  the  quantity  re«iuired  before,  and  yet 
they  fattened  as  rapidly  as  when  eating  the  largest  quantity. 
The  minimum  of  food  then,  required  for  the  support  of 
animals,  is  attained  when  closely  confined  in  a  warm,  dark 
shelter  ;  and  the  maximum,  when  running  at  large,  exposed 
to  all  weathers. 

THE    FOOD    OF    ANIMALS 

Should  be  regulated  by  a  variety  of  considerations.  The 
young  which  may  be  destined  for  maturity,  should  be  sup- 
plied with  milk  from  the  dam  until  weaning  time.  No  food 
can  be  substituted  for  the  well-filled  udder  of  the  parent,  which 
is  so  safe,  healthful  and  nutritious.  If  from  any  cause  there 
is  deficiency  or  total  privation,  it  must  be  made  up  by  that 
kind  of  food,  meal-gruel,  &c.,  which  in  composition  ap- 
proaches nearest  in  quality  to  the  milk.  At  a  more  advanced 
age,  or  the  time  for  weaning,  grass,  hay,  roots  or  grain 
may  be  substituted,  in  quantities  sufiicient  to  maintain  a 
steady,  but  not  a  forced  growth.  Stuft'ing  can  only  be  tole- 
rated in  animals  which  are  speedily  destined  for  the  slaugh- 
ter. Alternately  improving  and  falling  back  is  injurious  to 
any  animal.  An  animal  should  never  be  fat  hiilonce.  Espe- 
cially is  high  feeding  bad  for  breeding  animals.  Much  as 
starving  is  to  be  deprecated,  the  prejudicial  effects  of  reple- 
tion are  still  greater.  The  calf  or  lamb  intended  for  the 
butcher,  may  be  puslied  forward  with  all  possible  rapidity. 
Horses  or  colts  should  never  exceed  a  good  working  or  breed- 
ing condition. 

Purposes  fulfilled  by  different  kinds  of  food. — The 
objects  designed  to  be  answered  by  food,  are  to  a  certain 
extent  the  same.  All  food  is  intended  to  meet  the  demands 
of  respiration  and  nutrition,  and  fattening  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree.     But  some  are  better  suitted  to  one  object  than 


270  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Others,  and  it  is  for  the  intelligent  farmer  to  select  such  as 
are  best  for  accomplishing  his  particular  purposes.  The 
very  young  animal  requires  large  quantities  of  the  phosphate 
of  lime  for  the  formation  of  bone  ;  and  this  is  yielded  in  the 
milk  in  lajger  proportions  than  from  any  other  food.  The 
growing  animal  wants  bone,  muscle  and  a  certain  amount  of 
fat,  and  this  is  procured  from  the  grasses,  roots  and  grain  ; 
from  the  former  when  fed  alone,  and  from  the  two*  latter 
when  mixed  with  hay  or  grass.  Horses,  cattle  and  sheep, 
need  hay  to  quality  the  too  watery  nature  of  the  roots,  and 
the  too  condensed  nutritiveness  of  the  grain.  Animals  that 
are  preparing  for  the  shambles,  require  vegetable  oils  or  fat, 
starch,  sugar  or  gum.  The  first  is  contained  in  great  abun- 
dance in  flax  and  cotton-seed,  the  sun-flower  and  many  other 
of  the  mucilaginous  seeds.  Indian  corn  is  the  most  fatten- 
ing grain.  The  potato  contains  the  greatest  proportion  of 
starch,  and  the  sugar  beet  has  large  quantities  of  sugar,  and 
both  consequently  are  good  for  stall-feeding.  The  ripe  sugar- 
cane is  perhaps  the  most  fattening  of  vegetables,  if  we  except 
the  oily  seeds  and  grain.  The  Swedes  turnep  is  a  good  food 
to  commence  feeding  to  cattle  and  sheep,  but  where  great 
ripeness  in  animals  is  desired,  they  should  be  followed  with 
beets,  carrots  or  potatoes  and  grain.  The  table  of  the 
average  composition  of  the  different  crops,  which  we 
insert  from  Johnston,  affords  another  view  of  the  nutri- 
tive qualities  of  various  kinds  of  food,  before  given  from 
Boussingault,  page  158,  and  from  wliich  it  is  principally 
abridged,  and  it  will  be  found  a  valuable  reference  for  their 
nutritive  and  fattening  qualities.  He  says,  "  in  drawing  up 
this  table,  I  have  adopted  the  proportions  of  gluten,  for  the 
most  part,  from  Boussingault.  Some  of  them,  however, 
appear  to  be  very  doubtful.  The  proportions  of  fatty  matter 
are  also  very  uncoitain.  With  a  few  exceptions,  those  above 
given  have  been  taken  fromSprengel,  and  they  are,  in  gene- 
ral, stated  considerably  too  low.  It  is  an  interesting  fact, 
that  the  proportion  of  fatty  matter  in  and  immediately  under 
the  husk  of  the  grains  of  corn,  is  generally  much  greater 
than  in  the  substance  of  the  corn  itself.  Thus  I  have  found? 
the  i)ollard  of  wheat  to  yield  more  than  twice  as  n)uch  oil 
as  the  fine  flour  obtained  from  the  same  sample  of  grain. 
The  four  portions  separated  by  the  miller  from  a  superior 
sample  of  wheat  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of  Durham, 
gave  of  oil  respectively  : — fine  flour,  1-5  per  cent. ;  pollard, 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


'271 


2-4;  boxings,  3*6;  and  bran,  3*3  percent.  Dumas  states 
that  the  husk  of  oats  sometimes  yields  as  much  as  five  or 
six  per  cent,  of  oil."  The  columns  under  starch,  &c., 
and  fatty  matter,  denote  the  value  for  respiration  or  sus- 
taining life  and  the  fattening  qualities  ;  that  under  gluten, 
the  capacity  for  yielding  muscle  and  supporting  labor  ;  and 
saline  matter  indicates  something  of  the  proportions  which 
are  capable  of  being  converted  into  bones. 


Husk  or 

starch. 

Glu'en,  al- 

Water. 

woody 

gum,  and 

bumen,  ie- 

Fatty               Sniine 

fibre 

susar. 

gtimin,  ftr. 

matter.            matter. 

Wheat,    .     . 

.  16 

15 

55 

10  to  15 

2  to  4  J.         2-0 

Barley,     .     . 

,     .  15 

15 

60 

12? 

2-5  .T.          20 

Oats,' .     .     . 

,     .  16 

20 

50 

14-5? 

5  0  J.          3-5 

Rye,    .     .     , 

.     .  12 

10 

60 

14-5 

3-0            1-0 

ladiau  corn. 

.  14 

15? 

50 

120 

5  to  9  D.       1-5 

Buckwheat, . 

.16? 

25? 

50 

14-5 

0-4?          1-5 

Beans, 

.     .  16 

10 

40 

28-0 

2+          30 

Peas,  .     .     , 

.     .  13 

8 

50 

24-0 

2-8  ?         2-8 

Potatoes, 

.     .75? 

5? 

12? 

2-25 

.  0-3     0-8  to  1 

Turneps, 

.     .  85 

3 

10 

1-2 

?      0-8  to  1 

Carrots,    . 

.     .  85 

3 

10 

2-0 

0-4        1-0 

Meadow  hay 

,     .  14 

30 

40 

7-1 

2  to5D.  5  to  10 

Clover  hay. 

.     .  14 

25 

40 

9-3 

30           9 

Pea  straw,    , 

.    10  to  15 

25 

45 

12-3 

1-5 

Oat,       do. 

.     .    12 

45 

35 

1-3 

08           G 

Wheat,  do.   . 

12  to  15 

50 

30 

1-3 

0-5           5 

Barley,  do.  . 

.  do. 

50 

30 

1-3 

0-8           5 

Rye,'.     .     . 

.  do. 

45 

38 

1-3 

0-5           3 

Indian  corn, 

do.    12 

25 

52 

3  0 

1-7            4 

This  table,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  far  from  settling  the 
precise  relative  value  of  the  different  enumerated  articles. 
An  absolute,  unchanging  value  can  never  be  assumed  of  any 
one  substance,  as  the  quality  of  each  must  differ  with  ihe 
particular  variety,  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown,  the  cha- 
racter of  the  season,  the  manner  of  curing,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances. An  approximate  relative  value  is  all  that  can 
be  expected,  and  this  we' may  hope  ere  long  to  obtain,  from 
the  spirit  of  analytical  research  which  is  now  developed  and 
in  successful  progress.  More  especially  do  we  need  these 
investigations  with  American  products^  some  of  which  are  but 
partially  cultivated  in  Europe,  whence  we  derive  most  of  our 
analyses.  And  many  which  are  there  reared,  differ  widely 
from  those  produced  here,  as  these  also  differ  from  ench 
other.     What,  for  instance,  is  the  character  of  meadow  liay  ? 


272  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

W:  know  that  this  varies  as  4  to  1,  according  to  the  parti- 
cu'nr  kinds  grown  ;  and  our  Indian  corn  has  certainly  a  less 
range  than  from  5  to  9. 

The  CHANGES  IN  THE  FooD  OP  Animals. — Potatoes  when 
first  ripe,  are  estimated  to  be  worth  for  feeding  purposes, 
nearly  twice  as  much  as  wlien  old  ;  and  we  have  seen  that 
the  relative  value  of  the  dilferent  kinds  varies  greatly  at  the 
same  age  and  under  similar  conditions  of  growth.  Perrault 
ascertained  by  careful  experiment,  that  iiay,  clover  and 
lucern  lost  much  of  their  nutritive  qualities  by  drying,  and 
in  lucern  this  loss  amounted  to  about  35  per  cent.  This  is 
an  important  consideration  in  the  feeding  of  green  and  dry 
forage.  Oats  are  among  the  best  feed,  both  for  young  and 
working  animals  ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  they  are  greatly 
improved  for  the  latter,  and  perhaps  for  both,  by  allowing 
the  new  crop  to  remain  till  the  latter  part  of  winter  before 
feeding.  The  improvement  by  steaming  and  cooking  I'ood 
has  been  alluded  to  in  a  previous  chaj)ter.  Food  properl)^ 
managed,  can  never  be  made  worse  by  cooking  for  any  ani- 
mals, although  it  has  not  been  considered  so  essential  for 
working,  and  generally  for  ruminating  animals,  as  for  swine, 
and  such  as  were  stall-feeding.  But  tlie  alteration  produced 
in  cooking,  by  htting  it  for  a  more  ready  assimilation,  must 
as  a  general  rule,  add  much  to  the  value  of  the  food  and  the 
rapid  improvement  of  the  animal.  The  effect  of  slight  fer- 
mentation or  souring  the  food,  produces  the  same  result. 
Animals  accustomed  to  this  acid  food,  will  reject  what  is  un- 
prepared when  they  can  get  at  the  former  ;  and  we  haVe  no 
doubt  from  our  own  experience,  that  there  is  a  saving  in 
thus  preparing  it,  from  20  to  40  per  cent.  A  mixture  of 
food  should  be  supplied  to  all  animals.  Like  man,  they  tire 
of  any  constant  aliment.  For  such,  especially,  as  are  fatten- 
ii^,  and  which  it  is  desirable  to  mature  with  the  greatest 
rapidity,  a  careful  indulgence  of  tiieir  appetite  should  be 
studied,  and  it  should  be  provided  with  wjiatever  it  most 
craves,  if  it  be  adapted  to  the  secretion  of  fat.  Cutting, 
crushing  and  grinding  the  food  ;  cooking,  souring  and  mix- 
ing it,  are  each  by  themselves  an  improvement  in  feeding^- 
and  frequently  two  or  more  of  these  preparations  combined, 
are  of  great  utility  in  effecting  the  object  proposed. 

The  profit  op  fef-dincj,  it  is  evident,  consists  in  a  valua- 
ble return  from  the  animal  of  the  food  consumed.  In  the 
horse,  this  can  only  be  received  in  labor  or  breeding  ;  in  the 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  273 

OX,  from  labor  and  flesh ;  in  the  cow,  from  the  milk,  the 
flesh  and  her  young.     In  the  sheep,  it  may  be  returned  in  its 
fleece,  its  carcass  or  its  progeny ;  and  in  the  swine  only  by 
its  progeny  and  flesh.     The  manure  we  expect  from  all;  and 
if  this  be  not  secured  and  judiciously  used,   few  animals 
about  the  farm  will  be  found  to  yield  a  satisfactory  profit  for 
their  food  and  attention  ;  though  it  is  evident,  it  should  form 
but  a  small  part  of  the  return  looked  for.     Animals  are  only 
profitable  to  the  farmer  when  they  yield  a  daily  inrome,  as 
in  its  milk  or  labor,  or  annually,  by  its  young  or  fleece, 
unless  it  be  in  a  course  of  regular  improvement,  either  in  its 
ordinary  growth  or  preparation  for  the  butcher.    The  animal 
must  consume  a  certain  amount  of  food  merely  to  keep  up 
its  stationary  condition,  and  to  supply  the  materials  for  waste, 
respiration,  perspiration  and  the  evacuations.     These  must 
first  be  provided  for  in  all  cases  before  the  farmer  can  expect 
any  thing  for  the  food.     Frequent  observation  has  shown, 
that  an  ox  will  consume  about  two  per  cent,  of  his  weight 
of  hay  per  day,  to  maintain  his  condition.     If  put  to  mode- 
rate labor,  an  increase  of  this  quantity,  to  three  per  cent., 
will  enable  him  to  perform  his  work  and  still  maintain  his 
flesh.     If  to  be  fattened,  he  requires  about  4^  per  cent,  of  his 
weight  daily,  in  nutritious  food.    A  cow  to  remain  stationary 
and  give  no  milk  eats  two  per  cent,  of  her  weight  daily,  and 
if  in  milk,  she  will  consume  three  per  cent.     If  these  state- 
ments are  correct,  which  it  is  certain  they  are  in  principle, 
though  they  may  not  be  entirely  in  degree,  it  will  require 
the  same  food  to  keep  three  yoke  of  cattle  in  idleness,  as 
two  at  work,  and  the  food  of  every  two  that  are  idie,  will 
nearly  support  one  under  the  most  rapid  condition  of  fatting. 
Two  cows  may  be  kept  in  milk  with  the  same  feed  that  will 
keep  three  without.     No  practice  is  more  impolitic,  than 
barely  to  sustain  the  stock  through  the  winter,  or  a  part  of 
the  year,  as  is  the  case  in  too  many  instances,  and  allow 
them  to  improve  only   when  turned  on  grass  in  summer. 
Besides  subjecting  them  to  the  risk  of  disease,  consequent 
upon  their  privation  of  food,  nearly  half  the  year  is  lost  in 
their  use,  or  in  maturing  them  for  profitable  disposal,  when 
if  one-third  of  the  stock  had  been  sold,  the  remainder  would 
have  been  kept  in  a  rapidly  improving  condition,  and  at  three 
years  of  age,  they  would  probably  be  of  equal  value  as  other- 
wise at  five  or  six.     It  is  true  that  breed  has  much  to  do  with 
L* 


274  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

this  rapid  advancement,  but  breed  is  useless  witliout  food  to 
develop  and  mature  it. 


CHAPTER    XV 


NEAT    OR    HORNED    CATTLE. 

The  value  of  our  neat  cattle  exceeds  that  of  any  other  of 
the  domestic  animals  in  the  United  States,  and  they  are  as 
widely  disseminated  and  more  generally  useful.  Like  the 
sheep  and  all  our  domestic  brutes,  they  have  been  so  long 
and  so  entirely  subject  to  the  control  of  man,  that  their  ori- 
ginal type  is  unknown.  They  have  been  allowed  entire  free- 
dom from  all  human  direction  or  restraint  for  hundreds  of 
years,  on  the  boundless  pampas  of  South  America,  California 
and  elsewhere  ;  but  when  permitted  to  resume  that  natural 
condition,  by  which  both  plants  and  animals  approximate  in 
character  to  their  original  head,  they  have  scarcely  deviated 
in  any  respect  from  the  domeslic  herds  from  which  they  are 
descended.  From  this  it  may  be  inferred,  that  our  priesent 
races  do  not  differ  in  any  of  their  essential  features  and  cha- 
racteristics from  the  original  stock. 

VARIOUS  DOMESTIC  BREEDS. 

Cultivation,  feed  and  climate,  have  much  to  do  in  deter- 
mining the  form,  size  and  character  of  cattle.  In  Lithuania, 
cattle  attain  an  immense  size,  with  but  moderate  pretensions 
to  general  excellence,  while  the  Irish  Kerry  and  Scotch 
Grampian  cows  but  little  exceed  the  larg.'st  sheep  ;  yet  the^* 
last  arc  compact  and  well-made,  and  yield  a  good  return  for 
tiie  food  consumed.  Every  cotintry  and  almost  every  district 
has  its  peculiar  breeds,  which  by  long  association  have 
l)ecome  adapted  to  the  food  and  circumstances  of  its  position, 
and  when  Ibund  profitable,  they  should  be  exchanged  for 


NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE.  275 

Others,  only  after  the  most  thorough  trial  of  superior  fitness 
for  ilie  particular  location,  in  those  proposed  to  be  introduced. 
More  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  vari- 
ous breeds  of  cattle  in  England  than  in  any  other  country; 
and  it  is  there  they  have  attained  the  greatest  perfection  in 
form  and  character,  for  the  various  purposes  to  which  they 
are  devoted.  We  have  derived  directly  from  Great  Britain, 
not  only  the  parent  stock  from  which  nearly  all  our  cattle  arc 
descended,  but  also  most  of  those  fresh  importations,  to  which 
we  have  looked  for  improvement  on  the  present  race  of  ani- 
mals. A  few  choice  Dutch  cattle,  generally  black  and  while, 
and  of  large  size,  good  forms  and  good  milkers,  with  a  decided 
tendency  to  fatten,  have  been  occasionally  introduced  among 
us,  but  not  in  numbers  sufficient  to  keep  up  a  distinct  breed  ; 
and  in  the  hands  of  their  importers  or  immediate  successors, 
their  peculiar  characteristics  have  soon  become  merged  in 
those  herds  by  which  they  were  surrounded.  Some  few 
French  and  Spanish  cattle,  the  descendants  of  those  remote 
importations,  made  when  the  colonies  of  those  kingdoms  held 
possession  of  our  northern,  western  and  southern  frontiers, 
still  exist  in  those  sections  ;  and  although  possessing  no 
claims  to  particular  superiority,  at  least  in  any  that  hnve 
come  within  our  notice,  yet  they  are  so  well  acclimated,  and 
adapted  to  their  various  localities,  as  to  render  it  inexpedient 
to  attempt  supplanting  them,  except  with  such  as  are  par- 
ticularly meritorious. 

Native  cattle. — This  is  a  favorite  term  with  Americans, 
an]  comprehends  every  thing  in  the  country  excepting  such 
as  are  of  a  pure  and  distinct  breed.  It  embraces  some  of  the 
best,  some  of  the  worst,  and  some  of  almost  every  variety, 
sha[)e,  color  and  character  of  the  Bovine  race.  The  desig- 
nation has  no  farther  meaning,  than  that  they  are  indigenous 
to  the  soil,  and  do  not  belong  to  any  well  defined  or  distinct 
variety.  The  best  native  cattle  of  the  Union,  are  undoubtedly 
to  be  found  in  the  north-eastern  states.  Most  of  the  early 
emigrant  cattle  in  that  section,  were  from  the  southern  part 
of  England,  where  the  Devon  cattle  abound,  and  though  not 
bearing  a  close  resemblance  to  that  breed,  unless  it  has  been 
impressed  upon  them  by  more  recent  importations ;  yet  a 
large  number  have  that  general  approximation  in  character, 
features  and  color,  which  entitles  them  to  claim  a  near  kin- 
dred with  one  of  the  choicest  cultivated  breeds.  They  have 
the  same  symmetry,  but  not  in  general  the  excessive  delicacy 


276  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

of  form  which  characterizes  the  Devons ;  the  same  intelli- 
gence, activity  and  vigor  in  the  working  cattle,  and  the  same 
tendency  to  fattening;  but  they  are  usually  better  for  the 
dairy  than  their  imported  ancestors.  Some  valuable  inter- 
mixtures have  occasionally  been  made  among  them.  There 
have  been  many  brindle  cattle  widely  disseminated,  of  great 
merit  as  workers,  and  not  often  surpassed  for  the  dairy  and 
shambles.  The  Herefords  have  in  a  few  instances  been  intro- 
duced  among  the  eastern  cattle,  and  apparently  with  great 
improvement.  The  importation  made  by  Admiral  Coffin,  of 
four  choice  Hereford  bulls  and  cows,  which  were  presented 
to  the  State  Ag.  Soc.  of  Massachusetts,  nearly  thirty  years 
since,  is  especially  to  be  mentioned,  as  resulting  in  decided 
benefit  wherever  they  were  disseminated.  Some  of  the  old 
Yorkshire,  or  as  they  are  sometimes  styled,  the  long-horned 
Durhams,  have  been  introduced,  though  these  have  been  iso- 
lated individuals  and  never  perpetuated  as  a  separate  breed. 
A  few  small  importations  have  been  made  of  the  Short  Horns 
and  Ayrshires,  but  neither  of  these  have  been  bred  in  the  New 
England  states  in  distinct  herds  to  any  extent.  Their  native 
breed  has  hitherto,  and  generally  with  good  reason,  possessed 
claims  on  the  attention  of  their  owners,  which  (with  some 
slight  exceptions)  it  has  not  been  in  the  power  of  any  rivals 
to  supplant.  With  entire  adaptedness  to  the  soil,  climate  and 
wants  of  the  farmer,  an  originally  good  stock  has  been  care- 
fully fostered,  and  the  breeding  animals  selected  with  a  strict 
reference  to  their  fitness  for  perpetuating  the  most  desiral)le 
qualities.  As  a  consequence  of  this  intelligent  and  |)ersever- 
ing  policy,  widely,  but  not  universally  pursued,  they  have  a 
race  of  cattle,  though  possessing  considerable  diversity  of  size 
and  color,  yet  coinciding  in  a  remarkable  degree  in  the  pos- 
session of  those  utilitarian  features,  which  so  justly  commend 
ihvin  to  our  admiration. 

In  proceeding  south-westwardly  through  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  elsewhere,  we  shall  find  in  this  branch  of  stock,  a 
greater  diversity  and  less  uniform  excellence ;  though  they 
have  extcMisive  nimibers  of  valuable  animals.  Here  and  there  4 
will  be  found  a  choice  collection  of  some  favorite  foreign 
breed,  which  emigrants  have  brought  from  their  native  home, 
as  did  the  Pagan  colonists,  their  penates  or  liousehold  gods, 
the  cherished  associates  of  early  days,  and  the  only  relics  of 
their  father  land.  Such  are  an  occasional  small  heitl  of  polled 
or  hornless  cattle,  originally  derived  from  Suffolk  or  Galloway, 
excellent  both  for  the  dairy  and  shambles ;  the  Kyloe,  or  West 


NUAT    or    rtORNEtt   CATTLE.  277 

Highland  (Scottish,)  a  hardy  animal,  unrivalled  for  Ijeef ;  the 
Welsh  runt ;  the  Irish  cattle ;  the  crumpled  horn  Alderney, 
and  some  others. 

The  Devon  is  among  the  oldest  distinctly  cultivated  breeds 
in  this  coimtry,  as  he  undoubtedly  is  of  England,  and  prolm- 
bly  he  is  the  most  universal  favorite.  This  popularity  is  well 
deserved,  and  it  is  based  upon  several  substantial  considera- 
tions.  They  are  beautifully  formed,  possessing  excessive 
fineness  and  symmetry  of  frame,  yet  with  sufficient  bone  and 
muscle  to  render  them  perfectly  hardy,  and  they  are  among 
the  most  vigorous  and  active  of  working  cattle.  They  have 
great  uniformity  of  appearance  in  every  feature,  size,  shape, 
horns  and  color.  The  cows  and  bulls  appear  small,  but  the 
ox  is  much  larger,  and  both  that  and  the  dam,  on  cutting  up, 
are  found  to  weigh  much  beyond  the  estimates  which  an  eye 
accustomed  only  to  ordinary  breeds,  would  have  assigned  to 
them.  The  flesh  is  finely  marbled  or  interspersed  with  alter- 
nate fat  and  lean,  and  is  of  superior  quality  and  flavor.  The 
cows  invariably  yield  milk  of  great  richness,  and  when  ap[)ro- 
priately  bred,  none  surpass  them  for  the  quantity  of  butter  and 
cheese  it  yields.  Mr.  Bloomfield,  the  manager  of  the  late 
Lord  Leicester's  estate  at  Holkham,  has,  by  careful  attention, 
somewhat  increased  the  size  without  impairing  the  beauty  of 
their  form,  and  so  successful  has  he  been  in  developing  their 
milking  properties,  that  his  average  j)roduct  of  butter  from 
each  cow,  is  4  lbs.  per  week  for  the  whole  year.  He  has 
challenged  England  to  milk  an  equal  number  of  cows  of  any 
breed,  against  40  pure  Devons,  to  be  selected  out  of  his  own 
herd,  without  as  yet  having  found  a  competitor.  Although  this 
is  not  a  test  of  their  merits,  and  by  no  means  decides  their  su- 
periority, yet  it  shows  the  great  confidence  reposed  in  them 
by  their  owner.  The  Devon  ox  under  six  years  old,  has 
come  up  to  a  nett  dead  weight  of  1,593  lbs.,  and  at  three 
years  7  months  to  1,.*U6  lbs.,  with  160  lbs.  of  rough  tallow. 

Description. — The  Devon  is  of  medium  size,  and  so  sym- 
metrical as  to  appear  small.  The  color  is  invariably  a  deep, 
mahogany  red,  with  usually  a  white  udder  and  strip  under  the 
belly,  and  the  tuft  at  the  end  of  the  tail  is  red  in  the  calves, 
but  white  in  the  older  animal.  The  head  is  small,  broad  in 
the  forehead,  and  somewhat  indented.  The  muzzle  is  delicate, 
and  both  the  nose  and  the  rings  around  the  eye  in  the  pure 
breed,  are  invariably  of  a  bright,  clear,  orange.  The  cheeks 
and  face  are  thin  and  fleshless ;  the  horns  clear,  smooth,  and 
of  a  yellowish  waite,  handsomely  curved  upwards.  The  neck 


278  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

is  small  and  delicate  at  its  junction  with  the  head,  but  is  well 
expanded  in  its  attachment  to  the  breast  and  shoulders.  The 
last  has  the  true  slant  for  working,  activity  and  strength,  in 
which  it  excels  all  other  breeds  of  equal  weight.  The  barrel 
is  round  and  deep,  with  a  projecting  brisket.  The  back  is 
broad  and  level ;  the  flank  full ;  narrow  hips ;  the  rumps 
long,  and  the  quarters  well  developed,  and  capable  of  holding 
a  great  quantity  of  the  most  valuable  meat.  The  tail  is  on  a 
level  with  the  back,  and  gracefully  tapers  like  a  drum -stick, 
to  the  tufl  on  the  end.  The  legs  are  of  peculiar  delicacy  and 
fineness,  yet  possess  great  strength.  The  skin  is  of  medium 
thickness,  of  a  rich  orange  hue,  pliable  to  the  touch,  and  co- 
vered with  a  thick  coating  of  fine,  soft  curly  hair.  The  Devon 
is  intelligent,  gentle  and  tractable ;  is  good  for  milk,  and  unsur- 
passed for  the  yoke  and  for  fattening.  No  animal  is  better 
suited  to  our  scanty  or  luxuriant  hill  pastures  than  the  Devon, 
and  none  make  a  better  return  for  the  attention  and  food  re- 
ceived. They  insure  a  rapid  improvement  when  mixed  with 
other  cattle,  imparting  their  color  and  characteristics  in  an  em- 
inent degree.  Several  importations  have  been  made  into  this 
country  within  the  last  30  years,  of  the  choicest  animals,  and 
though  not  yet  numerous  in  the  United  States,  we  possess 
some  of  the  best  specimens  that  exist. 

The  short  horns  or  Durhams  are  decidedly  the  most 
showy  and  taking  among  the  cattle  species.  They  are  of  all 
colors  between  a  full,  deep  red,  and  a  pure  creamy  white  ;  but 
generally  have  both  intermixed  in  larger  or  smaller  patches,  or 
intimately  blended  in  a  beautiful  roan.  Black,  brown  or  brin- 
dled are  not  recognized  among  pure  bred  Short  Horns.  Their 
form  is  well-spread,  symmetrical  and  imposing,  and  capable 
of  sustaining  a  large  weight  of  valuable  carcass.  The  horn 
was  originally  branching  and  turned  upward,  but  now  fre- 
quently has  a  downward  tendency,  with  the  tips  pointing  to- 
wards each  other.  They  are  light  and  comparatively  short, 
clear,  highly  polished  and  waxy.  The  head  is  finely  formed, 
with  a  longer  face  but  not  so  fine  a  nuiz./le  as  the  Devon. 
The  neck  is  delicately  formed  without  dewlap;  the  brisket 
projecting,  and  the  great  depth  and  width  of  the  chest  givinj^, 
short,  well-spread  fore  legs.  The  crops  are  good  ;  back  and 
loin  broad  and  flat ;  ribs  projecting  ;  deep  flank  and  twist ; 
tail  well  set  up,  strong  at  the  roots  and  tapering.  They  have 
a  thick  covering  of  soft  hair,  and  are  mellow  to  the  touch, 
technically  termed  handling  well.  They  mature  early  and 
rapidly  for  the  quantity  of  food  consumed,  yielding  largely  of 


NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE.  279 

good  beef  with  little  oflal.  As  a  breed,  they  are  excellent 
milkers,  though  some  families  of  the  short  horns  surpass 
others  in  this  quality.  They  are  inferior  to  the  Devons,  in 
their  value  as  working  oxen  and  in  the  richness  of  their  milk. 
The  Short  Horns  are  assigned  a  high  antiquity,  by  the  oldest 
breeders  in  the  counties  of  Durham  and  Yorkshire,  England, 
the  place  of  their  origin,  and  for  a  long  time,  of  their  almost 
exclusive  breeding.  From  the  marked  and  decided  improve- 
ment which  they  stamp  upon  other  animals,  they  are  evidently 
an  ancient  breed,  though  much  the  juniors  of  the  Devon  and 
Hereford.  Their  highly  artificial  style,  form  and  character 
are  unquestionably  the  work  of  deeply  studied  and  long  con- 
tinued art ;  and  to  the  same  degree  that  they  have  been  mould- 
ed in  unresisting  compliance  with  the  dictation  of  their  breed- 
ers, have  they  departed  from  that  light  and  more  agile  form 
of  the  Devon,  which  conclusively  and  beyond  the  possibility 
of  contradiction,  mark  the  more  primitive  race. 

The  importation  of  Short  Horns  into  this  country  is  claimed 
to  have  been  previous  to  1783.  They  are  the  reputed  ances- 
tors of  many  choice  animals  existing  in  Virginia,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century,  and  which  were  known  as  the  milk 
breed;  and  somo  of  these,  with  others  termed  the  heef  breed, 
were  taken  into  Kentucky  by  Mr.  Patton,  as  early  as  1797, 
and  their  descendants,  a  vahiable  race  of  animals,  were  much 
disseminated  in  the  west,  and  known  as  the  Patton  stock. 
The  first  authentic  importations  we  have  recorded,  are  those 
of  Mr.  Heaton,  into  Westchester,  N.  Y.,  in  1791  and  '96, 
from  the  valuable  herds  of  Messrs.  Culley  and  Colling,  which 
consisted  of  several  choice  bulls  and  cows.  These  were  for 
many  years  bred  pure,  and  their  progeny  was  widely  scat- 
tered. {American  Herd  Book.)  They  were  also  imported 
into  New  York,  })y  Mr.  Cox,  in  1816  ;  by  Mr.  Bullock,  in 
1822 ;  by  the  late  Hon.  S.  Van  Rensselaer  in  1823,  and 
immediately  after  by  Mr  Charles  Henry  Hall,  of  Harlaem. 
Some  small  importations  were  made  into  Massachusetts  be- 
tween 1817  and  '25,  by  several  enterprising  agriculturists, 
Messrs.  Coolidge,  Williams,  and  others;  into  Connecticut 
by  Mr.  Hall  and  others  ;  into  Pennsylvania  by  Mr.  Powell; 
and  into  Ohio  and  some  other  states,  by  various  individuals 
early  in  the  present  century.  Since  the  first  importations, 
larger  accessions  from  the  best  English  herds  have  been  fre- 
quently made,  and  with  the  nice  regard  for  pedigrees  which 
the  introduction  of  the  herd  book,  and  careful  purity  in 
breeding  has  produced,  the  Short  Horns   have  become  the 


280  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

most    extensive  pure-bred  family  of  cattle  in   the  United 
States. 

During  the  speculative  times  of  1835  to  1840,  they  brought 
high  prices,  frequently  from  f  500  to  #1000,  and  sometimes 
more.  The  following  years  of  pressure,  reduced  their  market 
price  below  their  intrinsic  value,  but  the  tide  is  agaiu  turning, 
and  they  are  now  in  some  demand,  but  still  at  prices  far 
below  their  utility  and  merits.  They  have  from  the  tirst,  been 
favorites  in  the  rich,  corn  vallies  of  tha  West,  their  early 
maturity  and  great  weight  giving  them  a  preference  over  any 
other  breed.  The  only  drawback  to  this  partiality,  is  their 
inability  from  their  form  and  weight,  to  reach  remote  eastern 
markets  in  good  condition  ;  an  inconvenience  now  in  a  great 
measure  remedied,  by  the  recent  remission  of  duties  on  for- 
eign beef  in  the  English  market,  which  makes  them  of  nearly 
equal  value  where  fed,  to  pack  for  exportation.  On  light 
lands  and  scanty  pastures  they  will  probably  never  be  largely 
introduced.  All  heavy  animals  require  full  forage  within 
a  limited  compass,  so  as  to  till  their  stomachs  at  once,  and 
quietly  compose  themselves  to  their  digestion. 

The  weights  reached  by  the  Short  Horns  in  England,  as 
given  by  Mr.  Berry,  have  been  enormous.  Two  oxen,  six 
years  old,  weighed  nett,  1820  lbs.  each.  A  heifer  of  three 
years,  and  fed  on  grass  and  hay  alone,  weighed  1260  lbs.  A 
f<)ur-ycar-old  steer,  fed  on  hay  and  turneps  only,  dressed  1890 
lbs.  A  cow  reached  the  prodigious  weight  of  1778  lbs.  A 
heifer,  running  with  her  dam,  and  on  pasture  alone,  weighed 
at  seven  months,  470  lbs.  An  ox,  seven  years  old,  weighed 
2362  lbs.  From  their  comparatively  small  numbers  in  this 
coimtry,  most  of  them  have  been  retained  for  breeders,'  and 
ll^w  have  as  yet  been  fattened,  and  such  only  as  were  deci- 
dedly inferior.  The  animals  which  have  been  extensively 
|iroduced  by  crossing  upon  our  former  stocks,  have  given 
cvid(^nce  of  great  and  decided  improvement ;  and  the  Short 
Horns,  and  their  grade  descendants  are  destined  at  no 
distant  day,  to  occu|)y  a  large  portion  of  the  richest  feeding 
grounds  in  the  United  States. 

Hkrefouds  are  the  only  remaining  pure  breed,  which  hasr 
hitherto  occupied  the  attention  of  graziers  in  this  country. 
Like  the  Devons,  they  are  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most 
ancient  races  of  British  cattle.  Marshall  gives  the  following 
description  :  *'  The  coimtenance  pleasant,  cheerful,  open  ;  the 
forehead  broad  ;  eye  full  and  lively  ;  horns  bright,  taper,  and 
spreading  ;  head  small ;  chap  lean  ;  neck  long  and  tapering  ; 


NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE.  281 

chest  deep  ;  bosom  broad,  and  projecting  forward  ;  shoulder- 
bone  thin,  flat,  no  way  protuberant  in  bone  (?),  but  fiill  and 
mellow  in  flesh  ;  chest  full ;  loin  broad  ;  hips  standing  wide, 
and  level  with  the  chine ;  quarters  long,  and  wide  at  the 
necU  ;  rump  even  with  the  level  of  the  back,  and  not  droop- 
ing, nor  standing  high  and  sharp  above  the  quarters  ;  tail 
slender  and  neatly  haired ;  barrel  round  and  roomy ;  the 
carcase  throughout  deep  and  well  spread  ;  ribs  broad,  stand- 
ing flat  and  close  on  the  outer  surface,  forming  a  smooth, 
even  barrel,  the  hindmost  large  and  full  of  length  ;  round 
bone  small,  snug,  and  not  prominent  ;  thigh  clean,  and 
regularly  tapering ;  legs  upright  and  short ;  bone  below  the 
knee  and  hock  small ;  feet  of  middle  size  ;  flank  large  ;  flesh 
everywhere  mellow,  soft,  and  yielding  pleasantly  to  the  touch, 
especially  on  the  chine,  the  shoulder,  and  the  ribs  ;  hide 
mellow,  supple,  of  a  middle  thickness,  and  loose  on  the  neck 
and  buckle  ;  coat  neatly  haired,  bright  and  silky  ;  color,  a 
middle  red,  with  a  bald  face  characteristic  of  the  true 
Herefordshire  breed." 

Youatt  further  describes  them  as  follows:  "They  are 
usually  of  a  darker  red  ;  some  of  them  are  brown,  and  even 
yellow,  and  a  few  are  brindled  ;  but  they  are  principally 
distinguished  by  their  while  faces,  throats,  and  bellies.  In  a 
lew  the  white  extends  to  the  shoulders.  The  old  Herefords 
were  brown  or  red-brown,  with  not  a  spot  of  white  about 
them.  It  is  only  within  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years  that  it 
has  been  the  fashion  to  breed  for  white  faces.  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  change  of  color,  the  present  breed  is 
certainly  far  superior  to  the  old  one.  The  hide  is  considerably 
thicker  than  that  of  the  Devon,  and  the  beasts  are  more 
hardy.  Compared  with  the  Devons,  they  are  shorter  in  the 
leg,  and  also  in  the  carcase  ;  higher,  and  broader,  and 
heavier  in  the  chine  ;  rounder  and  wider  across  the  hips,  and 
better  covered  with  fat ;  the  thigh  fuller  and  more  muscular, 
and  the  shoulders  larger  and  coarser.  They  are  not  now 
much  used  for  husbandry,  although  their  form  adapts  them 
for  the  heavier  work  ;  and  they  have  all  the  honesty  and 
docility  of  the  Devon  ox,  and  greater  strength,  if  not  his 
activity.  The  Herefordshire  ox  fattens  speedily  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  it  is  therefore  more  advantageous  to  the  farmer, 
and  perhaps  to  the  country,  that  he  should  go  to  market  at 
three  years  old,  than  be  kept  longer  as  a  beast  of  draught. 
They  are  not  as  good  milkers  as  the  Devons.  This  is  so 
genei-ally  acknowledged,  that  while  there  are  many  dairies  of 


282  AMERICAN   AGRICXTLTIJRE:. 

Devon  cows  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  a  dairy  of 
Herefords  is  rarely  to  be  found.  To  compensate  for  this, 
they  are  even  more  kindly  feeders  than  the  Devons.  Their 
beef  may  be  objected  to  by  some  as  being  occasionally  a 
little  too  large  in  the  bone,  and  the  fore-quarters  being  coarse 
and  heavy  ;  but  the  meat  of  the  best  pieces  is  often  very  fine- 
grained and  beautifully  marbled.  There  are  few  cattle  more 
prized  in  the  market  than  the  genuine  Herefords." 

There  have  been  several  importations  of  the  Herefords 
into  the  United  States,  which  by  crossing  with  our  native 
cattle,  have  done  great  good  ;  but  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  fine  animals  at  the  South,  we  are  not  aware  of  their 
being  kept  in  a  state  of  purity,  till  the  importation  of  the 
splendid  herd,  within  the  last  six  years,  by  "Messrs.  Corning 
and  Sotham  of  Albany,  N.  Y.  These  Herefords  are  among 
the  very  best  which  England  can  produce,  and  come  up  fully 
to  the  description  of  the  choicest  of  the  breed.  Mr.  Sotham, 
after  an  experience  of  several  years,  is  satisfied  with  the 
cows,  for  the  dairy,  and  he  has  given  very  conclusive  pub- 
lished statements  of  the  results  of  their  milking  qualities, 
from  which  it  may  be  properly  inferred,  that  Youatt  drew  his 
estimates  from  some  herds  which  were  quite  indifferent  in 
this  property.  They  are  peculiarly  the  grazier's  animal,  as 
they  improve  rapidly  and  mature  early  on  medium  feed. 
They  are  excelled  for  the  yoke,  if  at  all,  only  by  the  Devons  ; 
which  in  some  features  they  strongly  resemble.  Both  are 
probably  divergent  branches  of  the  same  original  stock. 

The  Ayrshire  is  a  breed  that  has  been  much  sought  after 
of  late  years,  from  their  reputation  for  fine  dairy  qualities. 
The  milk  is  good  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  yielding,  ac- 
cording to  a  recent  statement  of  Mr.  Tennant,  of  Scotland, 
who  owns  a  large  herd,  15  quarts  per  day  during  the  best  of 
the  season,  12  of  which  made  a  pound  of  butter.  The  pro- 
duct of  the  latter  averages  about  170  pounds  per  annum  to 
each  cow.  Another  authority  says,  on  the  best  low-land  pas- 
ture, a  good  cow  yields  nearly  4000  quarts  per  year.  This 
is  a  large  quantity,  and  implies  good  cows  and  extra  feed. 
Mr.  Gushing,  of  Masssachusetts,  who  imported  several  select' 
animals,  without  regard  to  their  cost,  informed  us  after  three 
or  four  years  trial,  that  he  did  not  perceive  any  superiority  in 
them,  over  the  good  native  cows  of  that  state,  for  dairy  purpo- 
ses. A  large  number  have  been  imported  in  detached  parcels, 
and  scattered  through  the  country.  They  are  good  animals, 
but  seem  to  combine  no  valuable  properties  in  a  higher  de- 


NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE.  283 

gree  than  are  to  be  fouud  in  our  own  good  cattle,  and  espe- 
cially such  as  are  produced  from  a  cross  of  the  Short  Horn  bull 
of  a  good  miking  family,  on  our  native  cows.  They  are  cvi- 
dently  a  recent  breed,  and  do  not  therefore  possess  that  uni- 
formity of  appearance  and  quality  which  attaches  to  one  of 
long  cultivation.  Mr.  Aiton,  of  Scotland,  gives  the  following 
account  of  them  :  "The  dairy  breed  of  Scotland  have  been 
formed  chiefly  by  skilfid  management,  within  the  last  50 
years ;  and  they  are  still  improving  and  extending  to  other 
countries.  Till  after  1770,  the  cows  in  Cunningham  were 
small,  ill-fed,  ill-shaped,  and  gave  but  little  milk.  Some 
cows  of  a  larger  breed  and  of  a  brown  and  white  color,  were 
about  that  time  brought  to  Ayrshire  from  Teeswater,  and  from 
Holland,  by  some  of  the  patriotic  noblemen  of  Ayrshire  ;  and 
these  being  put  on  good  pasture,  yielded  more  milk  than  the 
native  breed,  and  their  calves  were  much  sought  after  by  the 
farmers." 

We  may  fairly  infer  from  the  foregoing,  which  is  deemed 
indisputable  authority ;  from  the  locality  of  their  origin,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Short  Horns  ;  and  from  their  general 
resemblance,  both  externally  and  in  their  general  characteris- 
tics to  the  grade  animals,  that  they  owe  their  principal  excel- 
lence to  this  long  established  breed. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  CALVES. 

The  safest  and  least  troublesome  manner  of  raising  calves, 
is  at  the  udder  of  the  dam ;  and  whenever  the  milk  is  con- 
verted into  butter  and  cheese,  we  believe  this  to  be  the  most 
economical.  The  milk  of  one  good  cow  is  sufficient,  with  a 
run  of  fresh,  sweet  pasture,  to  the  feeding  of  two  calves  at  the 
same  time,  and  if  we  allow  the  calves  to  arrive  at  three  or 
four  months  of  age  before  weaning,  we  may  safely  estimate, 
that  one  good  cow  will  yield  a  quantity  of  milk  in  one  season, 
fully  equivalent  to  bringing  up  four  calves  to  a  weaning  age. 
By  keeping  the  calf  on  the  fresh  milk,  whether  he  take  it 
directly  from  the  udder,  or  warm  from  the  pail,  all  risk  of  dis- 
ordered bowels  is  avoided.  The  milk  is  precisely  adapted  to 
the  perfect  health  and  thrift;  of  the  young,  and  whenever  we 
substitute  for  it  any  other  food,  we  must  watch  carefully  that 
not  the  slightest  mismanagement  produces  disorder,  lest  more 
is  lost  by  disease  or  want  of  improvement,  than  is  gained  by 
the  milk  of  which  they  are  robbed. 

The  first  milk  of  the  cow  after  calving,  is  slightly  purgative, 
which  is  essential  to  cleanse  the  stomach  of  the  calf.     It  is 


284  AMERICAN     AGRICULTUHE. 

moreover  perfectly  worthless,  for  two  or  three  days,  for  any 
other  purpose  except  for  swine.  The  calf  will  seldom  take 
all  the  milk  at  first,  and  whatever  is  left  in  the  hag  should  be 
thoroughly  removed  by  the  hand.  If  the  calf  is  destined  for 
the  butcher,  he  must  have  all  the  milk  he  wants  for  at  least 
six  weeks,  and  eight  or  ten  is  better ;  and  if  the  cow  does  not 
furnish  enough,  he  ought  to  be  fed  gruel  or  linseed  tea.  He 
must  be  closely  confined  in  a  snug,  but  clean  and  airy  stable, 
and  the  darker  this  is,  and  the  more  quiet  he  is  kept,  the  more 
readily  he  will  fatten.  If  designed  to  be  reared,  the  safest 
and  least  troublesome  method,  is  to  keep  the  calf  on  new  milk. 
If  saving  the  milk  be  an  object,  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  it 
is  not  better  that  he  should  have  a  part  of  it  fresh  from  the 
cow,  and  depend  for  his  remaining  food  on  a  good  grass  or 
clover  pasture,  meal  or  roots.  Some  farmers  never  iJlow  the 
calf  to  approach  the  dam,  but  take  it  when  first  dropped,  and 
put  a  handful  of  salt  in  its  mouth,  which  is  daily  repeated  till 
he  is  put  to  grass.  This  has  a  purgative  effect,  similar  to 
the  first  milk.  Flax-seed  is  then  prepared  by  boiling  a  pint 
in  four  to  six  quarts  of  water,  and  diluted  with  hay  tea 
till  rather  thicker  than  milk,  and  fed  at  blood  heat.  Hay  tea 
is  made,  by  boiling  a  pound  of  sweet,  well  cured  clover,  in  one 
and  a  half  gallons  of  clean  water.  As  the  calf  becomes  older, 
oat,  barley,  rye  or  Indian  meal  may  be  scalded  and  added  to 
the  flax  seed.  A  better  way  when  the  skim  milk  is  of  little' 
consequence,  is  to  withdraw  him  from  the  cow  after  three  or 
four  days,  then  scald  the  milk,  adding  a  little  oat  meal,  and 
cool  to  the  natural  temperature  of  the  milk,  and  feed  it.  Oats, 
either  crushed  or  ground,  is  the  best  and  safest  grain  for  all 
young  stock.  The  milk  should  not  stand  more  than  half  a 
day  before  feeding  to  young  calves.  As  they  advance  in  age, 
it  may  be  fed  rather  older,  but  should  never  be  allowed  to 
Income  sour ;  nor  should  it  ever  be  fed  cold.  Connected 
with  this  feed,  should  be  a  good  range  of  short,  sweet  pasture, 
and  shelter  against  both  sun  and  storms.  If  ex])edient,  at 
about  10  weeks  old,  he  m;iy  be  sali'ly  weaned,  but  four 
months  nursing  is  better  for  the  calf.  If  allowed  too  much 
milk  for  several  months,  it  is  injurious  to  the  future  devef.' 
opment  of  the  young.  It  does  not  distend  the  stomach  pro- 
perly, nor  call  into  use  its  ruminating  habits.  Calves  thus 
brought  up,  have  often  proved  light  bellied,  indifferent  feed- 
ers, and  decidedly  inferior  animals.  When  the  calf  is  remo- 
ved from  the  cow,  they  should  be  effectually  separated  from 
sight  and  hearing,  as  recognition  create  uneasiness,  and  is 


\ 


NEAT  OR  HORNETD  CATTLE.  285 

an  impediment  to  thtift  in  both.  If  there  be  any  deficiency 
of  suitable  pasture  for  the  calf,  a  small  rack  and  trough 
should  be  placed  under  the  shed  in  his  range,  and  fine  hay  put 
in  the  former,  and  wheat  bran  or  oat  meal  with  a  little  salt,  in 
the  latter.  It  is  also  well  to  have  resin  within  its  reach,  and 
if  inclined  to  scour,  add  a  little  rennet  to  its  food  ;  if  costive, 
administer  pork  broth.  For  disordered  bowels,  mix  2  dr. 
rhubarb,  2  oz.  castor  oil,  and  h  dv.  ginger,  with  a  little  warm 
milk  or  gruel ;  or  give  2  oz.  castor  oil  alone,  or  three  oz. 
of  Epsom  salts.  A  homely  remedy  for  scours,  is  to  adminis- 
ter half  a  pint  of  cider,  and  as  much  blood  taken  from  the 
calfs  neck.  Calves,  like  all  young  stock,  should  be  allowed 
to  change  their  feed  gradually,  from  new  milk  to  skimmed, 
or  from  the  latter  to  other  food.  Their  stomachs  are  delicate, 
and  need  gentle,  moderate  changes,  when  necessary  to  make 
them  at  all.  Much  depends  on  the  care  and  attention  they 
receive.  A  comfortable  shelter,  with  a  dry,  warm  bed,  suit- 
able food,  regularly  given  three  times  a  day  at  blood  heat, 
and  keeping  the  stomach  in  proper  order,  will  do  much 
to  bring  them  forward  rapidly,  and  with  a  stnall  expenditure 
of  food.  The  calf  requires  to  be  supplied  through  the  winter 
with  an  abundance  of  fine,  sweet  hay  and  roots,  the  latter 
cither  chopped  or  mashed  by  a  roller,  with  the  addition  of  a 
trifle  of  meal  or  oats,  and  a  full  supply  of  salt  and  pure  water. 
When  there  are  larger  animals  on  the  premises,  the  calves 
ought  to  be  kept  by  themselves.  They  should  be  sustained 
on  their  winter  feed  the  following  spring,  until  the  grass  fur- 
nishes a  good  bite  on  a  well-compacted  sod.  The  change 
from  hay  to  grass  must  be  gradual,  unless  the  latter  is  consi- 
derably matured.  The  extreme  relaxation  of  the  bowels  from 
the  sudden  change,  frequently  produces  excessive  purging. 
A  slight  and  temporary  relax  from  the  early  spring  grass,  is 
not  objectionable. 

Breeding. — The  young  animals  should  never  be  put  to 
breeding  under  15  months  old,  so  as  to  bring  their  first  calf 
at  two  years  old  ;  nor  then,  unless  they  have  large  size  and 
good  feed.  Much  depends  on  the  progress  towards  maturity, 
and  the  supply  of  food  in  selecting  the  proper  time  for  breed- 
ing. Some  are  as  ready  for  this  at  a  year  and  a  half,  as  others 
are  at  three.  Early  breeding  gives  delicacy  and  symmetry 
to  the  form  of  the  heifer,  but  it  checks  its  growth,  and  when 
it  is  found  to  put  her  back  too  much,  she  may  be  allowed  to 
rest  for  a  few  months,  or  even  a  year,  to  bring  her  up  to  the 
desired  standard.     These  remarks  apply  principally  to  choice 


286  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

breeding,  or  as  it  is  some  times  termed  fancy  stock.  For  ordi- 
nary milch  cows  which  have  been  moderately  fed,  three  years 
is  a  proper  age  to  come  in,  after  which  they  must  be  milked 
as  regularly,  and  as  late  before  drying  as  possible. 

Breaking  Steers  should  be  commenced  when  two  or 
three  years  old.  Some  begin  with  the  calf,  accustoming  him 
to  a  light  yoke  and  occasional  training.  This  practice  will 
do  as  a  pastime  for  trustworthy  boys,  as  it  makes  them  gentle 
and  manageable  afterwards,  but  is  hardly  worth  a  man's 
time.  If  always  carefully  handled  when  young,  they  will  be 
found  tractable.  They  should  at  first  be  placed  behind  a  pair 
of  well-broke  cattle,  nor  should  they  be  put  to  hard  labor  until 
quite  grown,  strong  and  perfectly  accustomed  to  the  yoke. 
If  properly  managed,  cattle  may  be  trained  with  all  the 
docility,  intelligence  and  much  of  the  activity  of  the  horse. 
That  they  are  not  is  more  frequently  the  fault  of  their 
masters. 

Management  of  Oxen. — To  procure  perfect  working 
cattle,  it  is  necessary  to  begin  with  the  proper  breed.  Many 
parts  of  the  country  will  furnish  such  as  are  well  suited  to 
this  purpose.  A  strong  dash  of  Devon  or  Hereford  blood 
is  desirable  when  it  needs  to  be  improved.  A  well-formed,  com- 
pact, muscular  body;  clean  sinewy  limbs  ;  strong  dense  bones  ; 
large  well-formed  joints,  with  a  mild  expressive  eye,  is  essen- 
tial for  good  working  oxen.  After  breaking,  they  must  be 
led  along  gently,  and  taught  before  they  are  required  to  per- 
form their  task,  and  never  put  to  a  load  which  they  cannot 
readily  move,  nor  dulled  by  prolonging  exertion  beyond  that 
point  when  it  becomes  irksonii^.  A  generous  diet  is  neces. 
sary  to  keep  up  the  spirit  and  ability  of  cattle,  when  there  is 
hard  work  to  be  done.  The  horse  and  mule  are  fed  with  their 
ds-ily  rations  of  grain  when  at  hard  service,  and  if  the  spirit 
of  the  ox  is  to  be  maintained,  he  should  be  equally  well  fed, 
when  as  fully  employed.  Great  and  permanent  injury  is  the 
result  of  niggardly  feeding  and  severe  toil,  exacted  from  tho 
uncomplaining  animul.  His  strength  declines,  his  spirit 
flags,  and  if  this  treatment  be  continued,  he  rapidly  become^ 
the  stupid,  moj)ing  brute,  which  is  shown  off  in  degratf* 
ing  contrast  to  the  more  spirited  horse,  that  performs,  it  may 
be,  one  half  the  labor,  on  twice  his  rations.  The  ox  should 
be  as  little  abused  by  threats  and  whipping,  as  by  stinted  feed 
and  overtasked  labor.  Loud  and  repeated  halloing,  or  the 
severe  use  of  the  lash,  is  as  impolitic,  as  it  is  cruel  and  dis- 
graceful.    We  never  witness  this  barbarity  without  wishing 


NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE.  287 

the  brutes  could  change  places,  long  enough  at  least  to  teach 
the  biped,  that  humanity  by  his  own  sufferings,  which  his 
reason  and  sensibility  have  tailed  to  inspire.  Clear  and  intel- 
ligible, yet  low  and  gentle  words,  arc  all  that  are  necessary 
to  guide  the  well-trained,  spirited  ox.  The  stick,  or  whip  is 
needed  rather  to  indicate  the  precise  movement  desired, 
than  as  a  stimulant,  or  means  of  punishment.  The  ox  under- 
stands a  moderate  tone  more  perfectly  than  a  boisterous  one; 
for  all  sounds  become  indistinct  as  they  augment.  He  loses 
his  sensitiveness  as  the  drivers  voice  increases,  till  at  last  ho 
becomes  almost  as  brutal.  It  is  of  great  advantage  to  have 
oxen  well  trained  to  hacking.  They  may  soon  be  taught  by 
beginning  with  an  empty  cart  on  a  descent ;  then  on  a  level; 
then  with  an  increasing  load,  or  up-hill,  till  the  cattle  will 
back  nearly  the  same  load  they  will  draw.  Some  oxen  have 
a  bad  trick  of  hauling  or  crowding,  (Changing  to  opposite 
sides,  longer  or  shorter  yokes,  and  more  than  all,  gentle  treat- 
ment are  the  only  remedies,  and  those  not  unfrequently  fail. 
Cattle  will  seldom  contract  this  habit,  in  the  hands  of  a  judi- 
cious; careful  driver.  The  yokes  should  be  carefully  made 
and  set  easy,  and  the  bows  fitted  to  the  necks  and  properly 
attached  to  the  yoke.  Cattle  are  liable  to  sore  necks  if  used 
in  a  stoim,  and  when  subject  to  this  exposure,  they  must  be 
well  rubbed  with  grease,  where  the  yoke  chafes  them,  and 
respite  from  work  should  be  alowed  till  the  necks  heal. 

The  proper  time  for  turning  off  cattle,  must  depend 
on  their  previous  feeding  and  management,  the  breed,  and  the 
j)urpo3es  required.  The  improved  breeds  and  many  of  their 
crosses,  will  mature  for  the  butcher  as  fully  at  three  or  four,  as 
inferior  cattle  at  five  to  seven  years  old.  If  pushed  rapidly 
with  proper  food,  they  will  of  course  be  ripe  much  sooner 
than  if  stinted.  When  cattle  have  to  be  purchased  for  work, 
or  cows  for  the  dairy,  it  becomes  an  object  to  keep  them  as 
long  as  they  can  be  made  profitable,  and  yet  be  turned  off  for 
fattening  at  a  fair  price.  We  have  seen  active  and  spririted 
oxen  in  the  yoke  at  16  or  17 ;  but  they  seldom  do  as  well 
afler  12  or  even  10  years.  Old  cattle  are  liable  to  more  dis- 
eases than  young,  are  less  hardy,  and  recover  more  slowly 
when  exposed  to  scanty  feed  or  hard  usage.  They  also  fat- 
ten with  more  difficulty,  and  their  meat  is  inferior.  When 
they  can  be  sold  advantageously  to  the  feeder,  and  replaced 
without  inconvenience,  it  is  found  to  be  most  profitable  to 
turn  them  off  at  7  or  8  years.  They  will  by  that  time  have 
attained  full  maturity,  they  will  feed  rapidly,  and  naake  t^^ 


288  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUUE. 

largest  amount  of  good  beef.  If  there  are  extraordinary 
milkers  among  the  cows,  or  first-rate  workers  among  the  oxen, 
it  is  better  to  keep  them  as  long  as  they  maintain  their  full 
vigor. 

Fattening  Cattle. — Such  as  are  designed  for  the  sham- 
bles the  ensuing  fall  or  winter,  may  be  allowed  to  do  their 
spring's  labor;  or  if  cows,  they  may  be  milked  into  summer  after 
calving,  or  go  farrow  during  the  previous  year.  They  should 
early  be  put  on  the  best  summer  feed,  whicli  is  better  to  be  occa- 
sionally changed,  to  give  variety  and  freshness,  and  keep  the 
animal  in  good  appetite.  Let  the  fattening  animals  have  the 
best,  and  after  they  have  cropped  it  a  while,  give  them  a  fresh 
field,  and  the  other  animals  or  sheep,  can  follow  and  clear  oft* 
the  remaining  herbage,  preparatory  to  shutting  it  up  for  a  new 
growth.  Some  prefer  an  extensive  range  of  rich  feed,  which 
is  unchanged  throughout  the  season,  and  when  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  divide  the  pasture  with  the  other  animals,  this  is  a 
good  practice. 

The  selection  of  animals  for  stall  fattening  is  a  nice  point, 
and  none  without  a  practised  eye  and  touch,  can  choose 
such  as  will  make  the  best  return  for  the  food  consumed. 
The  characteristics  of  choice  animals  heretofore  enumerated, 
are  particularly  essential  in  those  intended  for  profitable  fat- 
tening. But  the  most  important  of  all  is  that  firm  mellowness, 
and  quick  elasticity  of  touch,  which  unerringly  marks  the 
kindly  feeder  and  profitable  bullock.  When  other  means  for 
ascertaining  fail,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  select  the  best  conditioned; 
animals,  out  of  a  herd  of  grass-fed;  for  if  all  were  of  equal  flesh 
and  health,  when  turned  out,  those  which  have  thriven  most  oa . 
their  summer  pasture,  will  generally  fatten  quickest  on  their 
fall  and  winter  keep.  Only  the  best  should  be  selected.  The 
remainder  after  consuming  the  coarser  forage,  may  bo  at  once 
disposed  of  for  early  use.  From  repeated  trials  it  is  found 
that  the  carcass  of  stall-fed  animals  will  barely  return  the'- 
value  of  the  materials  consumed,  and  their  manure  is  generally 
the  only  com{)ensation  for  the  time  and  attention  bestowed. 
None  but  choice,  thrifty  beasts  will  pay  for  their  food  anjl 
attention,  and  all  others  will  make  their  best  returns,  by  ah 
immediate  disposal  after  the  surplus  fodder  is  gone. 

Stall-feeding  ought  to  be  commenced  early  in  the  season. 
An  ox  may  be  fed  in  a  box  stall,  or  if  accustomed  to  a  mate, 
they  do  better  by  tying  together  with  sufficient  room,  yet  not 
so  near  as  to  allow  of  injuring  each  other.  'J'hc  building 
should  be  warm,  but  not  hot ;  well  ventilated,  yet  having  on 


NEAT    OR    HORNED    CATTLE.  289 

current  of  cold  air  passing  through ;  and  as  dark  as  possible. 
The  stall  ought  to  be  kept  clean  and  dry,  and  a  deep  bed  of 
clean  straw  is  of  decided  advantage.  The  ox  should  be  first 
fed  the  inferior  and  most  perishable  roots  with  his  grain  and 
dry  forage,  and  his  food  should  be  gradually  increased  in 
richness  as  he  advances  towards  maturity.  The  food  and 
water  should  be  given  three  times  a  day,  from  thoroughly 
cleaned  mangers  or  troughs.  The  animal  likes  a  change  ot 
food,  in  which  he  should  be  indulged  as  often  as  may  be  neces- 
sary. If  he  refuses  his  food,  a  temporary  privation,  or  variety 
is  essential.  When  the  food  is  changed,  he  should  be  mode- 
rately fed  at  first,  till  he  becomes  accustomed  to  it,  as  there  is 
otherwise  danger  of  cloying,  which  is  always  injurious.  The 
moment  the  animal  has  done  feeding,  the  remainder  of  the 
food  ought  to  be  at  once  removed.  He  then  lies  down,  and 
i(  undisturbed,  rests  quietly  till  the  proper  hour  induces  him 
again  to  look  for  his  accustomed  rations.  Regularity  in  the 
time  of  feeding,  is  of  the  utmost  consequence.  An  animal 
soon  becomes  habituated  to  a  certain  hour,  and  if  it  be  de- 
layed beyond  this,  he  is  restless  and  impatient,  which  are 
serious  obstacles  to  speedy  fattening. 

DISEASES  IN  CATTLE, 

Our  limits  preclude  more  than  a  bare  mention  of  remedies 
for  some  of  the  most  common  diseases. 

HovEN,  OR  SWELLING  OF  THE  PAUNCH,  is  a  temporary 
ailment,  caused  by  eating  too  freely  of  uncut  and  generally 
wet  clover,  or  other  succulent  food.  The  animal  gorges  the 
first  stomach,  with  so  much  food,  that  its  contents  cannot  be 
expelled.  Inflammation  of  the  membrane  takes  place,  and 
decomposition  of  the  food  soon  follows.  This  is  known  by 
the  distension  of  the  paunch,  and  difficulty  of  breathing,  and 
unless  speedily  relieved,  suffocation  and  death  will  ensue. 
Both  sheep  and  cattle  are  sul)ject  to  it. 

Remedies.* — In  its  early  stages,  when  not  too  severe,  it 
has  been  removed  by  administering  some  one  of  the  following 
remedies.  A  pint  of  gin  poured  down  the  throat ;  from  one 
to  two  pints  of  lamp  or  other  oil ;  strong  brine ;  new  milk 
with  one  fifth  its  bulk  of  tar  mixed;  an  egg  shell  full  of  tar 
forced  down  the  throat,  followed  by  a  second,  if  the  first  fails  ; 
a  table  spoonful  of  volatile  spirit  of  ammonia,  diluted  with 

*  Besides  his  own  experience,  the  writer  has  drawn  from  the  N.  E.  Farmer,  the 
Albany  Cultivator,  the  American  Agriculturist,  and  other  reliable  American  and 
English  works,  some  of  the  remedies  for  diseases  herein  mentioned. 

M 


290  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

water ;  a  wine-glass  full  of  powder,  mixed  with  cold  lard  and 
forced  in  balls  into  the  stomach  ;  a  tea  spoonful  of  unslaked 
lime  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warm  water,  shaken  and  given 
immediately,  or  a  pint  of  tolerably  strong  lye.  The  proper 
mode  of  giving  the  above  remedies,  is  for  a  person  to  hold 
the  horn  and  cartilege  of  the  nose,  while  another  seizes 
and  draws  out  the  tongue  as  far  as  possible,  when  the  medi- 
cine is  thrust  below  the  root  of  the  tongue.  If  liquid,  it  must 
be  inserted  by  the  use  of  a  bottle.  The  probang  is  used  when 
the  former  remedies  are  inefTectual.  This  consists  of  a  tarred 
rope,  or  a  flexible  whip-stalk  three-fourths  of  an  inch  diame- 
ter, with  a  swab  or  bulbous  end.  Two  peisons  holding  the 
head  of  the  animal  so  as  to  keep  the  mouth  in  a  line  with  the 
throat,  while  a  third  forces  it  into  the  stomach,  when  the  gas 
finds  a  passsage  out.  A  stiff  leather  tube  with  a  lead  nozzle 
pierced  with  holes,  is  best  for  insertion,  through  which  the  gas 
will  readily  escape.  Some  one  of  the  above  purgatives  should 
be  given  after  the  bloat  has  subsided,  and  careful  feeding  for 
some  days  must  be  observed.  Light  gruels  are  best  for 
allaying  inflammation,  and  restoring  the  tone  of  the  stomach. 
When  no  other  means  are  available,  the  paunch  may  be  tap- 
ped with  a  sharp  pen-knife,  plunging  it  li  inches  forward  of 
the  hip  bone  towards  the  last  rib  in  the  left  side.  If  the  hole 
tills  up,  put  in  a  large  goose-quill  tube,  which  to  prevent  slip- 
ping into  the  wound,  may  remain  attached  to  the  feather,  and 
the  air  can  escape  through  a  large  hole  in  the  upper  end. 
Prevention  is  vastly  better  than  cure,  and  may  be  always 
attained,  by  not  allowing  hungry  cattle  to  fill  themselves  with 
clover,  roots,  apples,  &c.  When  first  put  upon  such  feed, 
it  should  be  when  the  dew  and  rain  is  off*,  and  their  stomachs 
are  already  partially  filled ;  and  they  should  then  be  with- 
drawn before  they  have  gorged  themselves. 

Choking  is  frequently  relieved  by  some  of  the  following 
expedients.  The  use  of  the  probang  or  whip-stock,  mentioned 
imder  the  head  of  remedies  for  Hoven,  by  which  the  root  is 
forced  into  the  stomach.  A  soft  root  may  be  crushed  so  as 
to  allow  of  swallowing,  by  holding  a  smooth  block  against  it, 
and  striking  with  a  mallet  on  the  opposite  side.  If  withiii 
arms  length,  the  root  may  be  removed  by  hand.  It  is  sai(t'' 
this  can  be  done  by  tieing  up  the  fore-leg  with  a  small 
cord  close  to  the  body,  and  giving  the  animal  a  sudden  start 
with  a  whip  ;  or  by  pulling  the  fore-leg  out  forward  ;  or  by 
pouring  down  the  throat  a  pint  bottle  full  of  soft  soap,  mixed 
with  sufficient  hot  water  to  make  it  run  freely.     Prevention 


NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE.  291 

consists  in  cutting  the  roots  ;  not  feeding  them  when  the  ani- 
mals are  very  hungry ;  and  not  disturbing  them  while  eating. 

InflaM3IATion  of  the  stomach  is  frequently  produced 
by  a  sudden  change  from  dry  to  green  food,  and  some  other 
causes.  Epsom  salts,  castor  oil,  sulphur  and  carbonate  of 
soda,  in  suflicicnt  quantity  to  purge  freely,  arc  good  remedies. 
It  may  be  prevented  by  changing  the  food  gradually. 

Mange  or  scab. — This  is  denoted  by  the  animal  rubbing 
the  hair  off  about  the  eyes  and  other  parts,  the  skin  is  scaly 
or  scabby,  sometimes  appearing  like  a  large  seed-wart. 
Remedy. — Rub  the  spots  with  sulphur  and  lard,  after  scraping 
and  washing  with  soap.  When  the  skin  is  cracked,  take 
sulphur,  1  lb  ;  turpentine,  1-4  lb  ;  iingucntum,  (or  mercurial 
ointment,)  2  ounces  ;  linseed  oil,  1  pint.  Melt  the  turpentine 
and  warm  the  oil,  and  when  partly  cooled,  stir  in  the  sulphur, 
and  when  cold  add  the  unguentum,  mixing  all  well.  Rub  this 
thoroughly  with  the  hand  on  the  parts  aflected.  We  have 
no  doubt  this,  like  scab  in  sheep  and  itch  in  the  human  spe- 
cies, will  be  Ibund,  on  close  investigation,  to  bo  caused  by 
minute  insects  located  in  the  skin.  Salt  and  water  ought  in 
that  case  to  be  a  good  remedy. 

Hollow  horn,  or  horn  ail,  is  not  unfrc(}uently  hollow 
stomach,  and  very  often  follows  stinted  fare,  hard  usage,  and 
exposure  to  cold.  We  have  noticed  this  as  most  prevalent 
among  oxen  that  have  done  a  severe  winter's  work.  Symp- 
toms.— Bloody  urine  ;  swollen  udder  ;  sliaking  the  head ; 
eyes  and  head  swollen  ;  standing  with  the  head  against  a  fence 
or  barn  ;  eyes  dull  and  sunken,  and  horns  cold.  Remedies. — 
1.  Bleed  and  physic,  shelter  and  feed  properly.  2.  Take  a 
half  pint  good  vinegar,  two  table  spoonsful  of  salt,  one  tea 
spoonful  of  pepper  and  mix  and  pour  into  each  ear,  holding 
the  head  on  one  side  for  two  minutes.  3.  Bore  with  a  large 
gimblet  on  the  under  side  of  the  horn,  three  or  four  inches 
from  the  head,  and  if  hollow,  bore  nearer  the  head  and  let  out 
all  the  matter,  and  syringe  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  salt 
and  water,  or  soaj)  suds,  or  salt  and  vinegar.  4.  Spirits  of 
turpentine  rul^bcd  in  around  the  base  of  the  horns,  will  arrest 
the  disease  in  its  incipient  stages.  5.  Pour  a  spoonfull 
boiling  hot  brimstone  into  the  cavity  between  the  horns. 
6.  Pour  a  tea  kettle  of  boiling  water  on  the  horns,  holding  so  as 
to  prevent  injury  to  the  Other  paits.  7.  Soot  and  pepper 
given  internally  are  good. 

Jaundice  or  yellows. — This  is  owing  to  gall  stones  or 
calculi,    which  occasionally  accumulate  in  large  numbers, 


29&  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

and  is  sometimes  owing  to  increased  or  altered  quality  of  the 
bile.  It  is  manifest  by  the  yellowness  of  the  eye  and  skin, 
and  high  color  of  the  urine,  and  poor  appetite.  Remedy. — 
Bleeding  and  purgatives  with  Epsom  salts  ;  or,  if  taken  in 
season,  2  ounces  ground  mustard,  mixed  with  a  liquid,  and 
given  twice  a  day.     Green  food  is  a  good  preventive. 

Mad  Itch. — This  disease  exists  in  some  of  the  western 
states,  and  shows  itself  by  jerking  of  the  head  and  itching 
around  the  nose  and  base  of  the  horns.  They  will  lick  their 
sides  and  backs,  and  jerk  and  hiccup  till  they  fill  themselves 
with  wind ;  afterwards  they  froth  at  the  mouth,  and  in  24 
hours,  die  raving  mad.  Remedy. — Give  as  much  soot  and 
salt  as  the  animal  will  eat ;  soon  after  give  3-4  or  1  Ib.brim- 
stone  or  sulphur,  and  8  hours,  after  as  many  salts. 

Bloody  Murrain,  or  red  water. — This  disease  first 
shows  itself  in  a  cough,  then  heaving  of  the  flanks,  with  bloody, 
black  and  foetid  fieces,  tenderness  over  the  loins,  and  coldness 
of  the  horns.  Tumors  and  biles  sometimes  appear.  The 
animal  holds  down  the  head,  moans,  and  is  restless  and  stag- 
gers when  walking. 

We  have  lost  several  animals  by  this  fatal  disease,  and  are 
not  aware  of  having  cured  any  when  severely  attacked.  In 
repeated  instances  we  have  seen  large  flukes  taken  out  of  the 
liver,  strongly  resembling  the  common  leech,  which  abounds 
in  many  of  our  swampy  lands.  It  is  certain  that  on  new,  low 
swamps  and  clay  lands,  cattle  are  most  liable  to  it ;  and  when 
they  have  been  subject  to  repeated  attacks  in  such  localities, 
clearinfj  and  draiuinff  have  checked  it.  Youatt  attributes  it 
to  certain  kinds  of  forage  which  is  peculiar  to  the  above  situ- 
ations. We  are  rather  inclined  to  attribute  it  to  exposure,  to 
excessive  dampness,  and  especially  to  miasma ;  for  although 
tlip  brute  creation  are  perhaps  less  sensitive  to  these  influences 
than  man,  yet,  as  they  are  governed  by  the  same  unvarying 
laws  of  nature,  when  subjected  to  conditions  totally  unsuited  to 
their  economy,  they  must  suffer  equally  in  kind,  though  prob- 
ably not  in  degree,  with  the  more  refined  human  frame.  But 
it  is  evident  the  disease,  its  causes,  and  remedies,  are  as  ye^ 
imperfectly  understood.  Remedies. — However  intelligent  men' 
may  differ  as  to  its  causes,  all  agree  that  the  animal  should 
first  be  bled  and  then  thoroughly  purged.  In  obstinate  cases, 
this  last  is  a  difficult  matter.  We  have  given  repeated  doses 
of  powerful  cathartics  without  producing  any  eflfect;  and 
whenever  the  medicine  is  inoperative,  death  speedily  follows. 
Large  doses  of  common  salt,  or  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  wa- 


NEAT  OR  HORNEP  CATTLE.  293 

ter,  are  good  purgatives,  and  if  the  animal  neglects  drinking 
after  taking  them,  he  should  be  drenched  with  copious 
draughts  of  water.  These  should  be  repeated  every  few 
hours  if  ineftectual.  Injections  are  sometimes  useful  when 
medicine  fails  to  act.  These  may  be  made  of  soap  and  wa- 
ter ;  or  take  2  or  3  gills  of  oats  boiled,  3  drachms  salt  petre, 
1  h  oz.  linseed  oil,  mix  and  use  them  when  warm.  The 
opening  of  the  bowels  may  be  followed  with  a  pint  of  linseed 
oil,  as  an  additional  and  gentle  laxative.  When  the  animal 
begins  to  recover,  gentle  astringents  and  tonics  may  be  given. 
Preventives. — We  have  more  confidence  in  preventives  than 
in  remedies.  Good  keep,  shelter,  dryness,  and  good 
health,  will  generally  prevent  attack.  The  cattle  should  at 
all  times  be  supplied  with  two  or  three  troughs  under  cover, 
and  on  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  which,  tar  should  be  plenti- 
fully spread.  Let  equal  portions  of  salt  and  slacked  lime  be 
in  one  ;  salt  and  wood  ashes  in  another ;  and  salt  and  brim- 
stone in  a  third.  Many  farmers  have  entirely  avoided  this 
disease  while  using  one  or  more  of  these,  when  they  annually 
lost  many  by  it  previously. 

Hoof  ail  is  indicated  by  lameness,  fever,  and  a  soft 
swelling  just  above  the  hoof.  Remedies. — Carefully  wash 
the  foot  in  warm  soap  suds,  and  while  still  damp,  apply  be- 
tween the  claws  on  the  affected  part,  from  one  to  three  grains 
of  corrosive  sublimate.  If  it  does  not  fully  adhere,  it  must  be 
mixed  with  hogs  lard,  but  it  should  be  so  applied  as  to  be  out 
of  the  reach  of  the  animal's  tongue,  as  it  is  a  powerful  poison, 
and  the  extreme  irritability  of  the  feet  will  induce  him  to  lick 
them.  The  claw  is  efficiently  cleansed  by  drawing  a  cord  brisk- 
ly through  it,  when  either  of  the  above  applications,  or  blue 
vitriol  put  on  two  or  three  times  a  day ;  or  spirits  turpentine, 
will  effect  a  cure.  It  is  sometimes  cured  by  putting  the  ani- 
mal in  the  stantials  and  applying  a  sharp  chisel  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  from  the  toe,  and  striking  it  with  a  mallet  till  it  is 
cut  off.  If  it  does  not  bleed  freely,  cut  off  shavings  till  it  does. 
If  the  animal  is  refractory,  let  a  person  hold  up  the  opposite 
foot.  K<>ep  them  in  the  stable  two  or  three  days,  and  out  of 
the  mud  for  a  week. 

Loss  OF  CUD  is  loss  of  appetite,  prostration,  and  general 
ill  health.  Remedies. — Give  a  warm  bran  mash,  with  good 
hay,  and  warm  water  with  salt.  An  aloe  tincture,  made 
with  brandy  and  ginger,  is  good.  Afterwards,  good,  dry, 
nourishing  food ;  and  bitter  infusions,  chamomile  flowers, 
hoarhound,  oak  bark,  &c.,  in  beer. 


294  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Scours,  or  diarrhcba. — A  common  remedy  is  to  boil  the 
bark  of  white  oak,  white  pine  and  beecli,  and  give  a  strong 
infusion  in  bran,  if  they  refuse  to  eat  it,  pour  it  down. 
The  oak  is  astringent,  and  the  pine  and  beech  is  soothing  and 
healing. 

Warbles  are  grubs,  the  egg  of  which  is  deposited  in  the 
back  of  cattle  by  the  gad  fly,  (CEstriis  hovis.)  They  are  dis- 
cernable  by  a  protuberance  or  swelling  on  the  back.  They 
may  be  pressed  out  by  the  thumb  and  finger ;  or  burnt  out  by 
plunging  a  hot  wire  in  them  ;  or  a  few  applications  of  strong 
brine  will  remove  them. 

WouxDs  in  cattle  are  readily  healed  when  the  animal's 
blood  is  in  good  order,  by  applying  a  salve  made  of  1  oz. 
green  copperas,  2  oz.  white  vitriol,  2  oz.  salt,  2  oz.  linseed 
oil,  8  oz.  W.  I.  molasses.  Boil  over  a  slow  lire  15  minutes^ 
in  a  pint  of  urine,  and  when  almost  cold,  add  1  oz.  oil  of 
vitriol,  and  4  oz.  spirits  turpentine.  Apply  it  with  a  feather 
to  the  wound,  and  cure  soon  follows. 

Milk,  or  puerperal  fever,  is  a  common  disease  with 
cows  in  high  condition  at  the  time  of  calving.  It  may,  in 
almost  every  case  be  avoided,  by  keeping  them  in  moderate 
feed  and  flesh.  Remedy. — Bleed  freely,  say  G  to  10  quarts, 
according  to  the  circulation  of  the  Ijlood ;  then  give  1  to  H 
lbs.  of  epsom  salts,  according  to  the  size  of  the  beast,  to  be 
repeated  in  half  lb.  doses  every  six  hours,  till  she  purges 
freely.  Injections  should  always  be  given  when  purgatives 
are  tardy  in  their  operation. 

Caked  bag  may  be  removed  by  simmering  the  bark  of 
the  root  of  bitter-sweet  in  lard,  till  it  becomes  very  yellow. 
When  cool,  apply  it  to  the  swollen  udder  once  in  8  or  10 
houi-s  ;  or  wash  it  several  times  a  day  in  cold  water.  A  pint 
of  norse-radisli  fed  once  a  day,  cut  up  with  potatoes  or  meal, 
is  useful  for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  also  a  tonic,  helps  the 
appetite,  and  is  go(Kl  for  oxen  subject  to  heat. 

Garget  is  a  more  intense  degree  of  inflammation  than 
exists  in  caked  bag,  and  sore,  swollen  teats,  and  shows  itself  in  ^ 
hard  bunches  on  the  udd<'r.  'J'he  cow  should  he  bled  and  take  * 
a  large  dose  of  physic  ;  then  wash  the  udder  as  in  caked  bag. 
Repeated  doses  of  sulphur  is  a  good  remedy.  Garget  or 
scoke  root  given  of  the  size  of  a  large  finger,  grated  and  fed 
in  their  food,  is  a  general  application  with  farmers.  The 
garget  plant  grows  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  with  a  purple 
stalk,  and  strings  of  berries  hanging  down  between  the 
branches. 


NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE.  295 

Sore  teats  may  be  healed  by  rubbing  with  goose  oil, 
cream,  new  milk  ;  or  the  applications  for  caked  bag.  The 
bag  and  teats  should  be  well  cleansed  with  warm  soft  water, 
if  to  be  followed  by  any  ointment.  The  following  applica- 
tion is  recommended  by  Youatt.  One  ounce  of  yellow  wax 
and  three  of  lard  ;  melt  together,  and  when  cooling,  rub  in 
one  quarter  oz.  of  sugar  of  lead,  and  a  drachm  of  alum  finely 
powdered. 

Warts  are  of  tw^o  kinds ;  the  first,  on  the  outer  skin,  may 
be  removed  by  rubbing  with  camphorated  olive  oil.  The 
others  penetrate  into  the  flesh,  and  may  be  removed  by  a  lig- 
ature of  fine  twine,  or  silk,  or  india  rubber  drawn  into  a  string, 
and  tied  tightly  around  the  wart,  which  falls  oflT  in  a  few  days. 
Nitrate  of  silver,  (lunar  caustic,)  applied  to  the  wart,  will 
remove  it,  but  it  produces  a  sore ;  or,  apply  a  strong  wash  of 
alum  ;  rub  with  the  juice  of  milk  weed  ;  poultice  with  grated 
carrot ;  or  cut  off  the  wart  with  sharp  scissors  when  the  cow 
is  dry.     It  will  bleed  little  and  soon  heal. 


[Devon  Cattle. — In  the  6th  line,  page  278,   for  narrow^  (a 
typographical  error,)  read  wide  hips.'] 


296  AMERICAN   AGKICULTURE. 


CHAPTER   XVI 


THE   DAIRY. 

Cows  FOR  THE  Dairy. — From  what  has  been  said  on  the 
various  characteristics  of  the  different  breeds  of  cattle,  it 
must  be  evident,  that  no  very  definite  criteria  of  excellence 
can  be  given,  for  all  good  dairy  cows.  But  there  arc  certain 
points  in  a  good  milker,  that  can  hardly  be  mistaken.  She 
should  be  descended  from  the  best  milking  stock ;  her  head 
should  be  small  or  of  medium  size,  muzzle  fine  and  nostrils 
flexible  and  expanded  ;  face  long,  slender  and  dishing  ;  clieeks 
thin;  eyes  full,  mild  and  prominent;  horns  delicate  and 
waxy,  and  they  may  be  either  branching,  lopped,  crumpled, 
or  hornless ;  long,  thin,  lively  ear,  and  the  inside  of  an 
orange  color ;  neck  thin  and  small  at  its  junction  with  the 
head  ;  deep  chest,  but  not  too  heavy  before  ;  back  level  and 
broad  ;  well  ribbed  ;  belly  large  ;  low  flank  ;  wide  thighs, 
but  thin  ;  short  legs,  and  standing  well  apart ;  large  milking 
veins  ;  loose,  capacious  udder,  coming  w^cll  out  behind  ;  good 
teats  ;  loose,  mellow  skin,  of  a  deep  yellow  ;  and  a  fine,  thick 
coat  of  glossy  hair ;  and  she  must  be  of  a  good  disposition, 
and  free  from  tricks.  Yet  with  all  the  skill  of  a  well  practised 
ts^ie  in  the  selection  of  animals,  the  dairyman  will  frequently 
find  his  theories  and  results  at  sad  variance.  One  may  some- 
times  select  a  fine  animal,  with  every  appearance  of  good 
milking  qualities,  which  is  but  a  medium  cow  at  the  pail  ; 
and  another,  that  hardly  seems  worthy  of  notice,  and  which 
sets  at  defiance  many  established  milking  points  and  all  pre^. 
conceived  notions  of  symmetry,  may  yet  prove  a  good  milker.^ 
A  cow  that  runs  to  flesh  while  in  milk,  is  generally  an  indif- 
ferent animal  for  the  dairy.  Perfection  in  a  cow,  consists  in 
converting  all  she  eats  into  milk  while  yielding  it,  and  when 
dry,  in  turning  all  she  consumes  into  valuable  meat. 

Management  of  Dairy  Cows. — A  cow  may  have  her 
first  calf  when  between  2  and  3  years  of  age,  according  to 


THE    DAIRY.  297 

her  size  and  developments.  After  calving,  she  should  be 
stinted  in  her  food  for  two  or  three  days,  and  not  fed  freely  for 
a  week.  Avoid  fat  in  a  breeding  cow.  Too  high  feeding 
is  the  cause  of  milk-fever,  caked  bag,  garget,  and  a  host  of 
evils  ;  and  too  poor  feed  is  almost  equally  objectionable. 
The  average  time  of  a  cow  with  young,  is  from  40  to  41 
weeks  ;  but  they  sometimes  go  'only  34,  and  occasionally 
overrun  44.  A  dry,  unoccupied  stall  or  yard  is  best  for  her 
to  calve  in  ;  and  if  there  is  any  serious  delay  or  difficulty  in 
the  operation,  she  may  be  assisted  by  placing  the  foetus  in  the 
right  position,  and  gently  pulling  it  with  every  throe  of  the 
dam.  After  the  calf  has  drawn  all  he  wants  at  morning  and 
evening,  the  bag  should  be  thoroughly  and  quickly  emptied 
of  aU  the  milk.  If  strong  and  vigorous,  the  calf  is  the  best 
doctor  for  garget  or  caked  bag.  He  may  be  allowed  to  suck 
the  cow  or  not,  at  the  option  of  the  owner ;  there  are  reasons 
for  and  against  the  practice,  as  will  be  seen  under  the  head 
of  raising  calves,  and  each  person  must  determine  in  his  own 
case,  on  which  side  the  balance  lies. 

Milking. — This  is  an  important  operation,  and  on  its 
proper  performance  depends  much  of  the  success  of  the  dairy- 
man. A  cow  regularly,  gently,  yet  quickly  and  thoroughly 
milked,  will  give  much  more  than  if  neglected.  If  a  herd  of 
cows  be  separated  into  two  divisions,  each  yielding  the  same 
quantity  of  milk,  and  one  is  given  to  a  good  milker,  and  the 
other  to  a  shiftless  or  lazy  one,  the  latter  will  speedily  reduce 
his  milk  much  below  the  quantity  obtained  by  the  former ; 
and  if  the  milkers  then  exchange  cows,  they  will  be  found  to 
change  quantity  too,  those  before  affording  the  least,  soon 
giving  the  most.  An  indifferent  milker  ought  never  to  be 
tolerated  in  a  herd  ;  good  ones  are  cheaper  at  double  the 
price.  It  is  best  to  milk  at  intervals  of  about  12  hours ; 
which  may  be  done  when  pastures  are  convenient,  or  cows 
are  soiled  or  fed  in  the  yard.  But  as  this  is  not  often  the 
case,  they  should  be  milked  early  in  the  morning  and  turned 
into  pasture,  to  fill  themselves  before  the  sun  is  oppressive  ; 
and  if  they  are  to  be  kept  up  at  night,  let  them  browse  in  the 
pasture  as  long  as  possible  before  they  are  brought  to  the 
yard. 

MILK 

Is  produced  from  the  females  of  all  the  warm-blooded  animals, 
which  are  ennumerated  among  the  mammalise.     The  milk 
of  several  animals  is  employed  for  domestic  purposes,  among 
M* 


298  AMERICAN     AGRICULTUEE. 

different  nations.  That  of  the  camel  is  used  by  the  Arabs, 
the  milk  of  the  ass  by  the  Spaniards,  the  Maltese,  and  the  in- 
habitants  of  the  Levant ;  that  of  the  mare  by  the  Cossacks, 
the  Kirgheez,  and  other  Tartars  ;  and  that  of  the  goat,  the 
ewe  and  the  cow,  by  most  of  the  ancient,  and  with  few 
exceptions,  by  every  modern  European  nation.  Within  the 
last  century  however,  the  use  of  all  excepting  cow's  milk,  has 
been  almost  entirely  discarded  among  the  most  highly  civili- 
zed  people.  If  we  except  some  few  Welsh  and  Swiss,  or  other 
emigrants,  who  resort  to  the  goat  and  ewe  for  their  dairy  ma- 
terials, for  the  first  few  years  of  their  residence  here,  the  cow 
is  the  only  animal  which  is  employed  in  America  for  produ- 
cing milk.  For  this,  she  is  pre-eminently  fitted,  and  the 
modern  improvement  of  this  invaluable  animal,  has  carried 
her  product  of  milk  almost  as  far  as  can  be  reasonably  looked 
for  from  a  given  amount  of  food ;  and  although  this  is  of 
about  the  average  richness  of  the  goat  and  ewe,  and  before  that 
of  the  ass,  the  quantity  she  yields  is  frequently  as  80  to  1  in 
favor  of  the  cow  over  the  first  two  competitors.  As  a  milk- 
giving  animal,  the  cow  is  the  best  fitted  for  the  purposes  of 
civilized  man,  and  she  is  made  to  contribute,  not  only  to  his 
health,  his  comfort  and  his  economy,  but  to  many  of  his 
choicest  luxuries.  Milk  contains  every  element  of  nutrition 
necessary  to  animal  existence ;  and  man  can  subsist  with 
unimpaired  health  and  strength,  if  limited  to  this  food  alone. 

The  constituents  of  milk  are  butter,  whicii  v^aries  from 
2  to  6  per  cent. ;  casein  or  cheese,  usually  4  to  5,  but  some 
times  varying  from  3  to  15  per  cent. ;  (the  last  excessive 
quantity,  yielded  only  by  the  first  milk  after  calving  ;)  milk- 
sugar,  4  to  6  ;  salts  or  saline  matter,  0*2  to  0*6  ;  and  water, 
80  to  89. 

TJtere  is  much  diversity  in  tJie  product  ami  quality  of  milk 
from  cows  of  the  same  breed,  the  same  food,  and  other  circum- 
stances and  conditions  apparently  equal.  Thus  of  a  herd  of 
22,  chiefly  Ayrshire,  one  gave  84  quarts  in  one  week,  which 
afforded  3i  lbs.  of  butter ;  two  others  in  the  same  time  gave 
86,  yielding  55  lbs ;  and  a  fourth  gave  88  quarts,  making  7 
lbs.  The  amount  of  butter  however,  which  a  given  quan- 
tity of  milk  will  produce,  is  not  the  only  criterion  of  the  value 
of  the  milk,  except  for  this  purpose  alone.  Some  cows  will 
yield  more  butter,  others  will  produce  more  cheese ;  while 
for  consumption,  another  may  partially  compensate,  in  the 
increased  quantity  of  milk-sugar,  and  the  saline  matters,  for 
a  deficiency  of  both  the  other  ingredients.     But  for  dairy 


THE    DAIRY.  299 

purposes,  butter  and  cheese,  are  the  only  measure  of  the  vahic 
of  milk  ;  and  a  cow  is  esteemed  good  or  indifferent,  as  she 
gives  one  or  the  other  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

Circumstances  which  modify  the  quantity  and  char- 
acter  OF  MILK. — Besides  the   accidental  variation  in  the 
quantity  and   quality  of  milk   in  different   animals   before 
adverted  to,  there  are  many  reliable  causes  which   influence 
both.     Of  these,  parentage  has  a  most  decided  and  uniform 
influence,   frequently  modified,   however,   in   the    particular 
individual,  by  some  personal  and  controlling  causes.     But  a 
cow  whose  maternal  ancestry  on  both  sides  are  choice  milkers, 
is  almost  certain   to  resemble  them.     Food  influences   the 
qua  ntlty  rather  than  the  quality.     Boussingault  tried  numer- 
ous experiments,  with  cows  fed  on  various  kinds  of  food,  and 
found  the  difference  hardly  appreciable  in  the  quality  of  milk. 
Its  true  benefit  is  to  be  looked  for,  in  the  increased  quantity, 
through  which  the   valuable   ingredients  are  distributed  in 
nearly  the  same  proportion,  as  when  the  product    is  materi- 
ally   lessened.     By  quality  we  mean  to   be   understood,  the 
amount  of  the  ingredients,  valuable  for  nutrition  only;  for  it 
is  certain,  that  there  is  a  rich  aromatic  flavor,  not  only  in  milk, 
but  in  butter  and  cheese,  which  is  afforded  in  various  articles 
of  food,  and  especially  by  the  fresh  green  herbage  which 
abounds  in  the  pastures  from  spring  to  autumn.     Activity  or 
rest  has   a  great  eflect  on  both  quantity  and  quality.     The 
less  action  and  the   more   quiet   and   rest,  the   greater    the 
amount  of  milk  and  butter.     But  exercise  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  production  of  cheese.     Butter  may  be  made  from 
cows  confined  in  a  stable,  but  cheese  can  only  be  profitably 
made  by  animals  at  pasture.     It  is  supposed  by  physiologists, 
that  the  exercise  in  gathering  their  food,  rather  than  any 
peculiarity  in  its  character,  is  necessary  to  convert  the  nitro- 
genized  tissues,  into  the  nitrogenized  principle  of  caseum  or 
cheese.     The   time  from  calving,  has  also  its  effect.     The 
first  milk  drawn  from  a  cow  after  calving,  has  been  found  to 
yield  over  15  per  cent,  of  casein,  while  in  its  ordinary  state 
it  givesonly  3  to5i.    As  the  quantity  of  milk  diminishes  in  a 
farrow  cow,  the  quality  improves  within  certain  limits.     Preg- 
nancy affects  the  quality  injuriously,  and  especially  towards 
its  latter  stages;  and  a  cow  that  is  predisposed  to  giving  milk, 
should  be  dried  off  a  few  weeks  before  its  expiration,  as  it  is 
then  unfit  for  use.     Fat  cows  give  poorer  milk  than  such  as 
are    moderately  lean  ;  and  young  animals  do  not  come  up  to 
the  maximum  of  their  quality,  till  after  their  third  or  fourth 


300  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

calving.  The  milk  first  drawn  from  the  udder,  will  yield  only 
an  eighth  and  sometimes  even  a  much  less  proportion  of  cream, 
than  the  strippings  ;  and  the  milk  which  is  drawn  three  times 
a  day,  is  greatly  inferior  to  such  as  is  taken  but  once,  though 
the  latter  is  less  abundant.  Excitement,  or  fretfulness ; 
change  of  locality,  or  to  a  different  herd  with  new  compan- 
ions ;  separation  from  her  calf;  periodical  heat ;  annoyance 
from  flies,  or  worry  from  dogs ;  exposure  to  storms,  severe 
cold,  or  an  oppressive  sun  ;  and  many  similar  causes,  dimin- 
ish the  cpiantity  of  milk  and  butter ;  but  some  of  these  may 
reasonably  be  expected  to  increase  the  proportion  of  its 
casein. 

Dr.  Playfair  found  that  the  quantity  of  butter  in  the  evening 
milk,  after  the  cow  had  been  at  pasture  all  day,  was  3.7 
per  cent.,  while  the  casein  was  5.4 ;  after  lying  (piietly  all 
night,  the  milk  from  the  same  cow  on  the  following  morning, 
contained  5.6.  per  cent,  of  butter,  and  only  3.9.  of  casein. 
In  stabling  the  cow,  the  butter  was  invariably  in  greater  pro- 
portion than  when  allowed  to  ramble  in  the  pasture  ;  and  the 
casein  with  a  single  exception,  was  equally  diminished. 

Cream — If  milk   be    immediately    set   away  in    shallow 
vessels,  after  being  taken   from  the  cow,  the  cream  rises  to 
the  surface,  and  carries  with  it  most  of  the   butter  contained 
in  the  milk,  and  along  with  it  much  of  its   casein.     Hence 
the  great  nutritive  properties  of  butter-milk,  which  retains 
the  casein  in  very  large  proportions,  much  of  it  being  rejected 
by  the  butter    in  its  separation  from  the  cream.     A  tempe- 
rature below   34",  will  prevent  the  cream  from  rising  in  any 
considerable  quantity,  and  preserve  the  milk  unaltered  for 
some  weeks.  Coagulating  the  milk  from  any  cause,will  equally 
prevent  the  separation  of  the  cream.     The  elevation  of  tem- 
perature within  certain  limits,  hastens  the  separation.     Thus, 
at  50%  the  cream  will  mostly  have  risen  in  3G  hours ;  at  55", 
in  24  ;  at  (38",  in  18  or  20,  and  at  77",    in   10  or  12   hours. 
Heating  the  milk  near  the  boiUng  point,  and  then  setting  it 
away  and  allowing  it  to  remain   undisturbed,  will  soon  cause  • 
the  cream  to  rise.     In  the  celebrated  Orange  dairy,  near  Bal-  ^' 
timore,  Md.,  this  system  was  practised,  by  whicli,  not  only 
most  of  the  cream  was  secured  for  butter,  but  in  consequence 
of  its  rapid  separation,  the  skimmed  milk  was  sent  to  market 
apparently  fresh ;  and  the  scalding  imparted  to  it  an  agreeable 
flavor  and  ap|)arent  richness,  which  it  did  not  really  possess. 
The  celebrated  clouted  cream  of  Devonshire,  England,  and 
the  butter  made  from  it,  contained  an  unusual  quantity  of 


THE   DAIRY.  301 

casein,  the  consequence  of  heating  the  milk.  "It  is  prepared  by 
straining  the  warm  milk  into  large  shallow  pans  into  which  a 
little  water  has  previously  been  put,  allowing  these  to  stand 
from  6  to  12  hours,  and  then  carefully  heating  them  over  a 
slow  fire,  or  on  a  hot  plate,  till  the  milk  approaches  the  boiling 
point.  The  milk,  however,  must  not  actually  boil,  nor  must 
the  skin  of  the  cream  be  broken.  The  dishes  are  now  removed 
into  the  dairy,  and  allowed  to  cool.  In  summer  the  cream 
should  be  churned  on  the  following  day ;  in  winter  it  may 
stand  over  two  days.  The  quantity  of  cream  obtained  is  said 
o  be  one-fourth  greater  by  this  method,  and  the  milk  which  is 
eft  is  proportionably  poor." — (Johnston.) 

BUTTER. 

Sour  Cream. — "Cream  for  the  purpoise  of  churning  is  usually 
allowed  to  become  sour.  It  ought  to  be  at  least  one  day  old, 
but  may  with  advantage  be  ke|)t  several  days  in  cool  weather; 
if  it  be  previously  well  freed  from  milk  and  be  frequently 
stirred  to  keep  it  from  curdling.  This  sour  cream  is  put  into 
the  churn  and  worked  in  the  usual  way  till  the  butter  sepa- 
rates. This  is  collected  into  lumps,  well  beat  and  squeezed 
free  from  the  milk,  and  in  some  dairies  is  washed  with  pure 
cold  water  as  long  as  the  water  is  rendered  milky.  In  other 
localities  the  butter  is  not  washed,  but,  after  being  well  beat, 
is  carefully  freed  from  the  remaining  milk  by  repeated 
squeezings  and  dryings  with  a  clean  cloth.  Both  methods, 
no  doubt,  have  their  advantages.  In  the  same  circumstances 
the  washed  butter  may  be  more  easily  preserved  in  the  fresh 
state,  while  the  unwashed  butter  will  probably  possess  a 
higher  flavor. 

Sweet  cream  may  be  put  into  the  churn  and  the  butter  be 
obtained,  but  in  most  cases  it  requires  more  labor  and  longer 
time,  without,  in  the  opinion  of  good  judges,  affording  in 
general  a  finer  quality  of  butter.  In  all  cases  the  cream 
becomes  sour  during  the  agitation  and  before  the  butter 
begins  distinctly  to  form. 

Clouted  cream. — The  churning  of  the  clouted  cream  of  this 
antl  other  countries  forms  an  exception  to  the  general  rule 
just  stated,  that  more  time  is  required  in  the  churning  of 
sweet  creams.  Clouted  cream  may  be  churned  in  the  morn- 
ing after  it  is  made,  that  is,  within  24  hours  of  the  time  when 
the  milk  was  taken  from  the  cow ;  and  from  such  cream  it 
is  well  known  that  the  butter  separates  with  very  great 
ease.     But  in  this  case  the  heating  of  the  cream  has  already 


862  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

disposed  the  oily  matter  to  cohere,  an  incipient  running 
together  of  the  globules  has  probably  taken  place  before  the 
cream  is  removed  tVoni  the  milk,  and  hence  the  comparative 
ease  with  which  the  churning  is  effected.  There  is  some- 
thing  peculiar  in  butter  prepared  in  this  way,  as  it  is  known 
in  other  countries  by  the  name  of  Bohemian  butter.  It 
is  said  to  be  very  agreeable  in  flavor,  but  it  must  contain 
more  cheesy  matter  than  the  butter  from  ordinary  cream. 

Churning  ilie  whole  m^k  is  a  much  more  laborious  method, 
from  the  dithculty  of  keeping  in  motion  such  large  quantities 
of  fluid.  It  has  the  advantage,  however,  of  giving  a  larger 
quantity  of  butter.  At  Rennes,  in  Brittany,  the  milk  of  the 
previous  evening  is  poured  into  the  churn  along  with  the 
warm  morning's  milk,  and  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  hours,  when  the  whole  is  churned.  In  this  way  it  is 
said  that  a  larger  quantity  of  butter  is  obtained,  and  of  a 
more  delicate  flavor.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Glasgow,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Ayton,  the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  six,  twelve 
or  twenty-four  hours  in  the  dairy,  till  the  whole  has  cooled, 
and  the  cream  has  risen  to  the  surface.  Two  or  three  milk- 
ings,  still  sweet,  are  then  poured,  together  with  their  cream, 
into  a  large  vessel,  and  are  left  undisturbed  till  the  whole  has 
become  quite  sour,  and  is  completely  coagulated.  The  proper 
sourness  is  indicated  by  the  formation  of  a  stiff  Z»rfl<  upon  the 
surface  which  has  become  uneven.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  the  brat  and  curd  unbroken  until  the  milk  is  about  to 
be  churned,  for  if  any  of  the  whey  be  separated  the  air  gains 
admission  to  it  and  to  the  curd,  and  fermentation  is  induced. 
By  this  fermentation  the  quality  of  the  butter  may  or  may 
not  lie  affected,  but  that  of  the  butter-milk  is  almost  sure  to 
bcs^  injured.  In  Holland  the  ))ractice  is  a  little  different.  The 
cream  is  not  allowed  to  rise  to  the  surface  at  all,  but  the  milk 
is  stirred  two  or  three  times  a  day,  till  it  gets  sour,  and  so 
thick  that  a  wooden  spoon  will  stand  in  it.  It  is  then  put 
into  the  churn,  and  the  working  or  the  s<>paration  of  the  but- 
ter is  assisted  by  the  addition  of  a  (juantity  of  cold  water.^ 
By  churning  the  sour  milk  in  one  or  other  of  these  ways,  the"^* 
butter  is  said  to  be  *  rich,  soun<l,  and  woll-llavored.'  If  it  be 
greater  in  quantity  it  is,  accor<ling  to  Sprengel,  because  the 
fatty  matter  carries  with  it  from  the  milk  a  larger  quantity  of 
casein  than  it  does  in  most  cases  from  the  cream  alone. 

Sourness  of  tlie  cream. — For  the  production  of  the  best 
butter  it  is  necessary  that  the  cream  should  be  sufficiently 
sour  before  it  is  put  into  the  churn.     Butter  made  from  sweet 


THK    BAIRY.  303 

cream  (not  clouted,)  is  neither  good  in  quality  nor  large  in 
quantity,  and  longer  time  is  required  in  churning.  It  is  an 
unprofitable  method. 

Quickness  in  churning, — The  more  quickly  milk  or  cream 
is  churned,  the  paler,  the  softer,  and  the  less  rich  the  butter. 
Cream,  according  to  Mr.  Ayton,  may  be  safely  churned  in  an 
hour  and  a  half,  while  milk  ought  to  obtain  from  two  to  three 
hours.  The  churning  ought  always  to  be  regular,  slower  in 
warm  weather  that  the  butter  may  not  be  soft  and  white,  and 
quicker  in  winter  that  the  proper  temperature  may  be  kept 
up.  A  barrel-churn,  lately  introduced  into  this  country, 
being  placed  in  a  trough  of  water  of  the  proper  temperature, 
readily  imparts  the  degree  of  heat  required  by  the  milk  or 
cream  without  the  necessity  of  adding  warm  water  to  the 
milk,  and  cliui-ns  tJie  wliole  in  ten  or  twelve  minutes.  It  is  said 
also  to  give  a  larger  weight  of  butter  from  the  same  quantity 
of  milk.  If  the  quality  be  really  as  good  by  this  quick 
churning,  the  alleged  inferiority  in  the  quality  of  butter 
cimrned  quickly  in  the  common  churn  can  not  be  due  to  the 
mere  rapidity  of  churning  alone. 

Over -churning. —V^han  the  process  of  churning  is  continued 
after  the  full  separation  of  the  butter,  it  loses  its  tine  yellowish, 
waxy  appearance,  and  becomes  soft  and  light  colored.  The 
weight  of  the  butter,  however,  is  considerably  increased  ;  and 
hence  in  Lancashire  over-churning  is  frequently  practised 
in  the  manufacture  of  fresh  butter  for  immediate  sale. 

TempercUure  of  the  milk  or  cream. — Much  also  depends 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  milk  or  cream  when  the  churning 
is  commenced.  Cream  when  put  into  the  churn  should  never 
be  warmer  than  55"  Farenheit.  It  rises  daring  the  churning 
from  4"  to  10°  F.  above  its  original  temperature.  When  the 
whole  milk  is  churned,  the  temperature  should  be  raised  to 
65°  F.,  which  is  best  done  by  pouring  in  hot  water  into  the 
churn  while  tJie  milk  is  kept  in  motion.  In  winter,  either  of 
these  temperatures  may  be  easily  attained.  In  cold  weather 
it  is  often  necessary  to  add  hot  water  to  the  cream  to  raise  it 
even  to  55°.  But  in  summer,  and  especially  in  hot  weather, 
it  is  difficult,  even  in  cool  and  well  ordered  dairies,  (without 
the  use  of  ice,)  to  keep  the  cream  down  to  this  comparatively 
low  temperature.  Hence  it  the  cream  be  then  churned,  a 
second  rate  butter,  at  best,  is  all  that  can  be  obtained. 

The  alleged  advantages  of  churning  the  entire  milk  may  be 
thus  stated.  The  proper  temperature  can  be  readily  obtained 
both  in  winter  and  summer.     A  hundred  gallons  of  entire 


304  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

milk  will  give  in  summer' five  per  cent,  more  butter  than  the 
cream  from  the  same  quantity  of  milk  will  give.  Butter  of 
the  best  quality  can  be  obtained  without  difficulty  both  in 
winter  and  summer.  No  special  attention  to  circumstances 
or  change  of  method  is  at  any  time  required.  The  churning 
in  winter  and  summer  is  alike  simple  and  easy.  The  butter 
is  not  only  of  the  best  quality  while  fresh,  but  is  also  best  for 
long  keeping,  when  properly  cured  or  salted. 

Cleanliness  is  peculiarly  necessary  to  the  manufacture  of 
good  butter.  Cream  is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  with 
which  it  absorbs  and  becomes  tainted  by  any  unpleasant 
odors.  It  is  very  necessary  that  the  air  of  the  dairy  should 
sweet,  that  it  should  be  often  renewed,  and  that  it  should  be 
open  in  no  direction  from  which  bad  odors  can  come." 
{Johnston  and  oilier  authorities.) 

The  statement  of  J.  T.  Lansing,  who  received  the  first 
premi><m  for  butter  from  the  New- York  State  Agricultural 
Society,  is  as  follows  : 

1 .  The  number  of  cows  kept  is  ten. 

2.  Keep  them  stabled  through  the  inclement  season ;  feed 
them  from  three  to  four  times  per  day  with  good  liay  or  green 
stalks  ;  when  near  coming  in,  add  some  oats,  barley,  or  corn 
cracked.  In  summer,  good  pasture,  with  living  water  acces- 
sible at  all  times,  and  plenty  of  salt. 

3.  Treatment  of  milk  and  cream  before  churning. — Strain 
the  milk  in  tin  pans;  place  them  in  a  cool  cellar  for  the 
cream  to  rise.  When  sufficiently  risen,  separate  the  cream 
from  the  milk ;  put  in  stone  jars,  well  prepared  before 
churning. 

4.  The  mode  of  churning  in  summer. — Rinse  the  churn 
wifc^i  cold  water  ;  then  turn  in  the  cream,  and  add  to  each  jar 
of  cream  put  in  the  churn,  full  one-fourth  of  the  same  quan- 
tity of  cold  water.  The  churn  used  is  a  patent  one,  moved 
by  hand  with  a  crank,  having  paddles  attached,  and  so  con- 
structed as  to  warm  the  milk,  if  too  cold,  with  hot  water, 
without  mixing  them  together.  The  milk  and  cream  receive  I 
the  same  treatment  in  winter  as  in  summer  ;  and  in  churn- 
ing, use  hot  instead  of  cold  water,  if  necessary. 

5.  The  method  of  freeing  the  butter  from  the  milk,  is  to 
wash  the  butter  with  cold  water  till  it  shows  no  color  of  the 
milk,  by  the  use  of  a  ladle. 

6.  Salting  the  butter. — Use  the  best  kind  of  Liverpool 
sack  salt ;  the  quantity  varies  according  to  the  state  in  which 
the  butter  is  taken  from  the  churn  ;  if  soft,   more,  if  hard, 


THE    DAIRY.  305 

less,  always  taking  the  taste  for  the  surest  guide.     Add  no 
saltpetre,  nor  other  substances. 

7.  The  best  time  for  churning  is  the  morning,  in  hot  wea- 
ther, and  to  keep  the  butter  cool  till  put  down. 

8.  The  best  mode  of  preserving  butter  in  and  through  the 
summer  and  winter,  is  as  follows  : — ^The  vessel  is  a  stone 
jar,  clean  and  sweet.  The  mode  of  putting  it  down  is  to  put 
in  a  churning  of  butter,  and  put  on  strong  brine;  let  it  remain 
on  until  the  next  churning  is  ready  to  put  down,  and  so  on 
till  the  jar  is  filled  ;  then  cover  it  over  with  fine  salt,  the  same 
to  remain  on  till  used. 

Mr.  Mc  Williams  of  Orange  county,  the  celebrity  of  whose 
butter  is  unsurpassed,  thus  details  his  method  of  butter- 
making  : 

"Our  practice  is  not  to  churn  the  milk  until  it  becomes 
thick  or  loppered,  the  milk  and  cream  is  then  churned  toge- 
ther. The  temperature  of  the  milk  is  about  50  degrees.  In 
warm  weather  about  a  quart  of  cold  water  is  put  in  each 
pan  before  the  milk  is  strained,  so  as  to  keep  it  sweet  as  long 
as  possible.  The  cellar-floor  is  brick.  This  in  warm  wea- 
ther is  daily  cleansed  with  cold  water.  A  drain  from  the 
cellar  carries  off  the  water  thus  applied.  The  churn  is  filled 
about  half  full  with  milk,  with  the  addition  of  two  pails  of 
cold  water  before  starting  the  churn.  In  cold  weather  the 
same  quantity  of  warm  water  is  applied.  When  the  churn- 
ing is  finished,  which  usually  occupies  about  two  hours  of 
time,  there  are  then  two  more  pails  of  cold  water  applied  to 
raise  the  butter  and  cool  it.  The  butter  is  then  taken  out  of 
the  churn  and  put  in  a  large  tray,  this  is  immediately  filled 
with  cold  water  and  the  butter  carefully  washed  ;  after  which 
the  water  is  thrown  off.  The  butter  now  undergoes  the  pro- 
cess of  salting,  it  is  then  placed  in  a  cool  situation  where  it 
stands  about  an  hour,  and  worked  carefully  over.  This 
finished  it  is  placed  in  tlie  same  situation  as  before,  where  it 
stands  three  or  four  hours,  and  is  again  worked  over ;  again 
replaced  for  five  or  six  hours,  when  it  is  worked  over  for  the 
third  time.  It  is  now  rei)laced,  where  it  stands  till  the  next 
morning  and  worked  over  for  the  fourth  time.  A  small 
quantity  of  nitre  is  then  put  in  the  butter.  Thus  finished  it 
is  placed  in  firkins  holding  about  85  lbs.  Previous  to  pack- 
ing, the  firkin  is  scalded  with  hot  water,  rinsed  and  cooled 
with  cold  water,  then  rubbed  all  around  with  fine  salt ;  this 
preveats  the  butter  from  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  firkin. 
When  the  firkin  is  full,  a  linen  cloth  is  placed  over  the  top  of 


306  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

the  butter;  on  this  cloth  a  covering  of  salt  is  put  one  inch 
deep,  and  cold  water  enough  added  to  it  to  form  a  brine.  It 
then  stands  till  it  is  to  be  sent  to  market  when  the  cloth  and 
salt  are  removed,  the  firkin  turned  down,  the  top  of  the  but- 
ter in  the  keg  washed  with  cold  water  and  the  pickle 
drained  off.  The  firkin  is  now  neatly  headed  up  and  sent 
to  market." 

The  salt  added  to  the  butter  should  be  from  l-24th  to  l-28th 
of  its  weight,  or  about  §  of  an  ounce  to  a  pound,  and  this  must 
be  of  the  best  quality.  All  the  butter-milk  must  be  tho- 
roughly extracted  by  repeated  washings ;  and  when  com- 
pleted the  butter  should  be  immediately  packed  and  not  a  par- 
ticle of  air  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  it  till  opened  for 
the  table. 

CHEESE. 

The  circumstances  affecting  the  quality  of  cheese. 
"  All  cheese  consists  essentially  of  the  curd  mixed  with  a 
certain  portion  of  the  fatty  matter  and  of  the  sugar  of  milk. 
But  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  milk,  in  the  proportion 
in  which  the  several  constituents  of  milk  arc  mixed  together, 
or  in  the  general  mode  of  dairy  management,  give  rise  to 
varieties  of  cheese  almost  without  number.  Nearly  every 
dairy  district  produces  one  or  more  qualities  of  cheese  pecu- 
liar to  itself. 

Natural  differences  in  the  milk. — It  is  obvious  that  whatever 
gives  rise  to  natural  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  milk 
must  affect  also  that  of  the  cheese  prepared  from  it.  If  the 
milk  be  poor  in  butter,  so  must  the  cheese  be.  If  the  pasture 
be  such  as  to  give  a  milk  rich  in  cream,  the  cheese  will  par- 
talte  of  the  same  quality.  If  the  herbage  or  other  food 
affect  the  taste  of  the  milk  or  cream,  it  will  also  modify  the 
flavor>)f  the  cheese. 

Milk  of  different  animals. — So  the  milk  of  different  animals 
will  give  cheese  of  unlike  qualities.  The  ewe-milk  cheeses 
of  Tuscany,  Naples,  and  Languedoc,  ami  those  of  goat's^' 
milk  made  on  Mont  Dor  and  elsewhere,  are  celebrated  for 
qualities  which  are  not  possessed  by  cheeses  prepared  from 
cow's  milk  in  a  similar  way.  l*»uffalo  milk  also  gives  a 
cheese  of  peculiar  qualities,  which  is  manufactured  in  some 
parts  of  the  Neapolitian  territory.  Other  kinds  of  cheese 
again  are  made  from  mixtures  of  the  milk  of  ditierent  animals. 
Thus  the  strong  tasted  cheese  of  Lecca  and  the  celebrated 
Roquefort  cheese  are  prepared  from  mixtures  of  goat  with 


THE    DAIRY.  307 

ewe-milk,  and  the  cheese  of  Mont  Cenis  from  both  of  these 
mixed  with  the  milk  of  the  cow. 

Creamed  oruncreamed  milk, — Still  further  differences  are 
produced  according  to  the  proportion  of  cream  which  is  left  in 
or  is  added  to  the  milk.  Thus  if  cream  only  be  employed,  we 
have  the  rich  cream-cJieese  which  must  be  eaten  in  a  com- 
paratively recent  state.  Or,  if  the  cream  of  the  previous 
night's  milking  be  added  to  the  new  milk  of  the  morning,  we 
may  have  such  cheese  as  the  Stilton  of  England,  or  the 
small,  soft,  and  rich  Brie  cheeses,  so  much  esteemed  in 
France.  If  the  entire  milk  only  be  used,  we  have  such 
cheeses  as  the  CJieshire^  the  Double  Gloucester,  the  CJieddar, 
the  Wiltshire,  and  the  Dunlop  cheeses  of  Britain,  the  Kinne- 
gad  cheese,  I  believe,  of  Ireland,  and  the  Gouda  and  Edam 
cheeses  of  Holland.  Even  here,  however,  it  makes  a  differ- 
ence whether  the  warm  milk  from  the  cow  is  curdled  alone, 
as  at  Gouda  and  Edam,  or  whether  it  is  mixed  with  the  milk 
of  the  evening  before,  as  is  generally  done  in  Cheshire  and 
Ayrshire.  ]\Iany  persons  are  of  opinion  that  cream,  which 
has  once  been  separated,  can  never  be  so  well  mixed  again 
with  the  milk,  that  a  portion  of  the  fatty  matter  shall  not  tlow 
out  with  the  whey  and  render  the  cheese  less  rich.  If,  again, 
the  cream  of  the  evening's  milk  be  removed,  and  the  skimmed 
milk  added  to  the  new  milk  of  the  next  morning,  such  cheeses 
as  the  Single  Gloucester  dire  obtained.  If  the  cream  be  taken 
once  from  all  the  milk,  the  better  kinds  of  skimmed-milk 
cheese,  such  as  the  Dutch  cheese  of  Leyden,  are  prepared  ; 
while  if  the  milk  be  twice  skimmed,  we  have  the  poorer 
cheeses  of  Friesland  and  Groningen.  If  skimmed  for  three 
or  four  days  in  succession,  we  get  the  hard  and  horny  cheeses 
of  Essex  and  Sussex,  which  otten  require  the  axe  to  break 
them  up. 

Butier-milk  cheese. — But  poor  or  butterless  cheese  will  also 
differ  in  quality  according  to  the  state  of  the  milk  from  which 
it  is  extracted.  If  the  new  milk  be  allowed  to  stand  to  throw 
up  its  cream,  and  this  be  then  removed  in  the  usual  way, 
the  ordinary  skimmed-milk  cheese  will  be  obtained  by  adding 
rennet  to  the  milk.  But  if,  instead  of  skimming,  we  allow 
the  milk  to  stand  till  it  begins  to  sour,  and  then  remove  the 
butter  by  churning  the  whole,  we  obtain  the  milk  in  a  sour 
state  {butter -milk.)  From  this  milk  the  curd  separates  natu- 
rally by  gentle  heating.  But  being  thus  prepared  from  sour 
milk  and  without  the  use  of  rennet,  butter-milk  cheese  differs 
more  or  less  in  quality  from  that  which  is  made  from  sweet 


308  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

skimmed-milk.  The  acid  in  the  butter-milk,  especially  after 
it  has  stood  a  day  or  two,  is  capable  of  coagulating  new  milk 
also,  and  thus,  by  mixing  more  or  less  sweet  milk  with  the 
butter-milk  before  it  is  warmed,  several  other  qualities  of 
mixed  butter  and  sweet  milk  cheese  may  readily  be  manu- 
factured. 

Whey.cJieese. — The  whey  which  separates  from  the  curd, 
and  especially  the  white  whey,  which  is  pressed  out  towards 
the  last,  contains  a  portion  of  curd,  and  not  unfrequently  a 
considerable  quantity  of  butter  also.  When  the  whey  is 
heated,  the  curd  and  butter  rise  to  the  surface,  and  are  readily 
skimmed  off.  This  curd  alone  will  often  yield  a  cheese  of 
excellent  quality,  and  so  rich  in  butter,  that  a  very  good 
imitation  of  Stilton  cheese  may  sometimes  be  made  with 
alternate  layers  of  new  milk-curd  and  this  curd  of  whey. 

Mixtures  of  riegelahle  substances  with  the  milk. — New 
varieties  of  cheese  are  formed  by  mixing  vegetable  substan- 
ces with  the  curd.  A  green  decoction  of  two  parts  of  sage 
leaves,  one  of  marigold,  and  a  little  parsley,  gives  its  color 
to  the  green  cheese  of  Wiltshire;  some  even  mix  up  the 
entire  leaves  with  the  curd.  The  cele])rated  Schaljzieger 
cheese  of  Switzerland  is  made  by  crushing  the  skim-milk 
cheese  after  it  is  several  months  old  to  fine  powder  in  a  mill, 
mixing  it  then  with  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of  tine  salt,  and 
one-twenti(^th  of  the  powdered  leaves  of  the  mellilot  trefoil, 
(trifolium  melilotus  cerulea,)  and  afterwards  with  oil  or  butter, 
working  the  whole  into  a  paste,  which  is  pressed  and  care- 
fully dried. 

Potato  cJieeseSf  as  they  are  called,  are  made  in  various  ways. 
One  pound  of  sour  milk  is  mixed  with  five  pounds  of  boiled 
potatoes  and  a  little  salt,  and  the  whole  is  beat  into  a  pulp, 
which,  after  standing  five  or  six  days,  is  worked  up  again, 
and  then  dried  in  the  usual  way.  Others  mix  three  parts  of 
dri<ni  boiled  potatoes  with  two  of  fresh  curd,  or  equal  M'eights, 
or  mon^  curd  than  potato  according  to  the  quality  required. 
Such  cheeses  are  made  in  Thuringia,  in  Saxony,  and  in  other 
parts  of  (iermany.  In  Savoy,  an  excellent  cheese  is  mad'e 
by  mixing  one  of  the  pulp  of  potatoes  with  three  of  ewe 
milk  cunl,  and  in  Westj)halia  a  potato  cheese  is  made  with 
skiinmed  milk. 

Preparation  of  rkxnkt. — Rennet  is  prepared  from  the 
salted  stomach  or  intestines  of  the  suckling  calf,  the  unweaned 
lamb,  the  young  kid,  or  the  young  pig.  In  general,  however, 
the  stomach  of  the  calf  is  preferred,  and  there  are  various 


THE    DAIRY.  309 

ways  of  curing  and  preserving  it.  The  stomach  of  the 
newly  killed  animal  contains  a  quantity  of  curd  derived  from 
the  milk  on  which  it  has  been  fed.  In  most  districts  it  is 
usual  to  remove  by  a  gentle  washing  the  curd  and  slimy  mat- 
ters which  are  present  in  the  stomach,  as  they  are  supposed 
to  impart  a  strong  taste  to  the  cheese.  In  Cheshire  the  curd 
is  frequently  salted  separately  for  immediate  use.  In  Ayrshire 
and  Limburg,  on  the  other  hand,  the  curd  is  always  left  in 
the  stomach  and  salted  along  with  it.  Some  even  give  the 
calf  a  copious  draught  of  milk  shortly  betbre  it  is  killed,  in 
order  that  the  stomach  may  contain  a  larger  quantity  of  the 
valuable  curd. 

Sailing  the  stomach. — In  the  mode  of  salting  the  stomach 
similar  differences  prevail.  Some  merely  put  a  few  handfuls 
of  salt  into  and  around  it,  then  roll  it  together,  and  hang  it 
near  the  chimney  to  dry.  Others  salt  it  in  a  pickle  for  a 
few  days,  and  then  hang  it  up  to  dry  (Gloucester,)  while 
others  again  (Cheshire)  pack  several  of  them  in  layers  with 
much  salt  both  within  and  without,  and  preserve  them  in  a 
cool  place  till  the  cheese-making  season  of  the  following 
year.  They  are  then  taken  out,  drained  from  the  brine, 
spread  upon  a  table,  sprinkled  with  salt  which  is  rolled  in 
with  a  wooden  roller,  and  then  hung  up  to  dry.  In  some 
foreign  countries,  again,  the  recent  stomach  is  minced  very 
fine,  mixed  with  some  spoonfuls  of  salt  and  bread-crumb  into 
a  paste,  put  into  a  bladder,  and  then  dried.  In  Lomhardy  the 
stomach,  after  being  salted  and  dried,  is  minced  and  mixed 
up  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a  little  whey  or  water  into  a  paste, 
which  is  preserved  for  use.  In  whatever  way  the  stomach 
or  intestine  of  the  calf  is  prepared  and  preserved,  the  almost 
universal  opinion  seems  to  be,  that  it  should  be  kept  for  10  or 
12  months  before  it  is  capable  of  yielding  the  best  and 
strongest  rennet.  If  newer  than  12  months,  the  rennet  is 
thought  in  Gloucestershire  to  make  the  cheese  heave  or  swell, 
and  become  full  of  eyes  or  holes. 

Making  tJie  rennet. — In  making  the  rennet  different  customs 
also  prevail.  In  some  districts,  as  in  Cheshire,  a  bit  of  the 
dried  stomach  is  put  into  half  a  pint  of  lukewarm  water  with 
as  much  salt  as  will  lie  upon  a  shilling,  is  allowed  to  stand 
over  night,  and  in  the  morning  the  infusion  is  poured  into  the 
milk.  For  a  cheese  of  60  lbs.  weight,  a  piece  of  the  size  of 
half-a-crown  will  often  be  sufficient,  though  of  some  skins 
as  much  as  10  square  inches  are  required  to  produce  the 
same  effect.     It  is  perhaps  more  common,  however,  to  take 


310  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

the  entire  stomach,  and  to  pour  upon  them  from  one  to  three 
quarts  of  water  for  each  stomach,  and  to  allow  them  to  infuse 
for  several  days.  If  only  one  has  been  infused,  and  the 
rennet  is  intended  for  immediate  use,  the  infusion  requires 
only  to  be  skimmed  and  strained.  But  if  several  be  infused, 
or,  as  is  the  custom  in  Cheshire,  as  many  as  have  been  pro- 
vided for  the  whole  season,  about  two  quarts  of  water  are 
taken  for  each,  and,  after  standing  not  more  than  two  days, 
the  infusion  is  poured  off,  and  is  completely  saturated  with 
salt.  During  the  summer  it  is  constantly  skimmed,  and  fresh 
salt  added  from  time  to  time.  Or  a  strong  brine  may  at 
once  be  poured  upon  the  skins,  and  the  infusion,  when  the 
skins  are  taken  out,  may  be  kept  for  a  length  of  time.  Some 
even  recommend  that  the  liquid  rennet  should  not  be  used 
until  it  is  at  least  two  months  old.  When  thus  kept,  however, 
it  is  indispensable  that  the  water  should  be  fully  saturated 
with  salt.  In  Ayrshire,  and  in  some  other  counties,  it  is 
customary  to  cut  the  dried  stomach  into  small  pieces,  and  to 
put  it,  with  a  handful  or  two  of  salt  and  one  or  two  quarts  of 
water,  into  a  jar,  to  allow  it  to  stand  for  two  or  three  days, 
afterwards  to  pour  upon  it  another  pint  for  a  couple  of  days, 
to  mix  the  two  decoctions,  and,  when  strained,  to  bottle  the 
whole  for  future  use.  In  this  state  it  may  be  kept  for  many 
months. 

In  making  rennet,  some  use  pure  water  only,  others  ]>re(er 
clear  whey,  others  a  decoction  of  leaves,  such  as  those  of  the 
sweetbriar,  the  dogrose,  and  the  bramble,  or  of  aromatic 
herbs  and  flowers,  while  others  again,  put  in  lemons,  cloves, 
mace,  or  Ijrandy.  These  various  practices  arc  adopted  for 
the  purpose  of  making  the  rennet  keep  better,  of  lessening 
its  unpleasant  smell,  of  preventing  any  unpleasant  taste  it 
flight  give  to  the  curd,  or  finally  of  directly  improving  the 
flavor  of  the  cheese.  The  acidity  of  the  lemon  will,  no 
doubt,  increase  also  the  coagulating  ])owcr  of  any  rennet  to 
which  it  may  be  a(kled.  The  rennet  thus  prepared  is  poured 
into  the  milk  previously  raised  to  the  temperature  of  90"  or 
95°  F.,  and  is  intimately  mixed  with  it.  The  (piantity  whit^i 
it  is  necessary  to  add  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  rennel, 
from  a  table-spoonful  to  half  a  pint  tor  30  or  40  gallons  of 
milk.  The  time  necessary  for  the  comjilete  fixing  of  the 
curd  varies  also  from  15  minutes  to  an  hour  or  even  an  hour 
and  a  half.  The  chief  causes  of  this  variation  are  tie  tem- 
perature of  the  milk,  and  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
rennet  employed. 


THE    DAIRY.  311 

Different  Qualities  of  Cheese. — The  temperature  of 
new  or  entire  milk,  when  the  rennet  is  added,  should  be  raised 
to  about  Ory  F.  ;  that  of  skimmed  milk  need  not  be  quite  so 
higii.  If  the  milk  be  warmer  the  curd  is  hard  and  lough,  if 
colder,  it  is  soft  and  difficult  to  obtain  free  from  the  whey. 
When  the  former  happens  to  be  the  case,  a  portion  of  the  first 
whey  that  separates  may  be  taken  out  into  another  vessel, 
allowed  to  cool,  and  then  poured  in  again.  O^  it  prove  to 
have  been  too  cold,  hot  milk  or  water  may  be  added  to  it;  or 
a  vessel  containing  hot  water  may  be  put  into  it  before  the 
curdling  commences  ;  or  the  first  portion  of  whey  that  sepa- 
rates may  be  heated  and  poured  again  upon  the  curd.  The 
quality  of  the  cheese,  however,  will  always  be  more  or  less 
aflected  when  it  happens  to  be  necessary  to  adopt  any  of  these 
remedies.  To  make  the  best  cheese,  the  true  temperature 
should  always  be  attained  as  nearly  as  possible,  before  the 
rennet  is  added. 

Mode  in  which  the  milk  is  warmed. — If,  as  is  the  case  in 
some  daries,  the  milk  be  warmed  in  an  iron  pot  upon  the  naked 
fire,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  singed  or  fre- 
fanged.  A  very  slight  inattention  may  cause  this  to  be  the' 
case,  and  the  taste  of  the  cheese  is  sure  to  be  more  or  less 
affected  by  it.  In  Cheshire  the  milk  is  put  into  a  large  tin 
pail,  which  is  plunged  into  a  boiler  of  hot  water,  and  frequently 
stirred  till  it  is  raised  to  the  proper  temperature.  In  large 
dairy  establishments,  however,  the  safest  method  is  to  have  a 
pot  with  a  double  bottom,  consisting  of  one  pot  within  ano- 
ther, after  the  manner  of  a  glue  pot ;  the  space  between  the 
two  being  filled  with  water.  The  tire  applied  beneath  thus 
acts  only  upon  the  water,  and  can  never,  by  any  ordinary 
neglect,  do  injury  to  the  milk.  It  is  desirable  in  this  heating, 
not  to  raise  the  temperature  higher  than  is  necessary,  as  a 
great  heat  is  apt  to  give  an  oiliness  to  the  fatty  matter  of  the 
milk. 

The  time  during  which  the  curd  stands  is  also  of  importance. 
It  should  be  broken  up  as  soon  as  the  milk  is  fully  coagulated. 
The  longer  it  stands  after  this  the  harder  and  tougher  it  will 
become. 

Tfie  quality  of  the  rennet  is  of  much  importance  not  only  in 
regard  to  the  certainty  of  the  coagulation,  but  also  to  the  fla- 
vor of  the  cheese.  In  some  parts  of  Cheshire,  as  we  have 
seen,  it  is  usual  to  take  a  piece  of  the  dried  membrane  and 
steep  it  overnight  with  a  little  salt  for  the  ensuing  morning's 
milk.     It  is  thus  sure  to  be  fresh  and  sweet  if  the  dried  maw 


312  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

be  in  good  preservation.  But  where  it  is  customary  to  steep 
several  skins  at  a  time,  and  to  bottle  the  rennet  for  after-use, 
it  is  very  necessary  to  saturate  the  solution  completely  with 
salt,  and  to  season  it  with  spices,  in  order  that  it  may  be  pre- 
served in  a  sweet  and  wholesome  state. 

T)ie  quarUity  of  rennet  added  ought  to  be  regulated  as  care- 
fully as  the  temperature  of  the  milk.  Too  much  renders  the 
curd  tough  ;  too  little  causes  the  loss  of  much  time,  and  may 
permit  a  larger  portion  of  the  butter  to  separate  itself  from  the 
curd.  It  is  to  be  expected  also  that  when  rennet  is  used  in 
great  excess,  a  portion  of  it  will  remain  in  the  curd,  and  will 
naturally  affect  the  kind  and  rapidity  of  the  changes  it  after- 
wards undergoes.  Thus  it  is  said  to  cause  the  cheese  to 
heave  or  swell  out  from  fermentation.  It  is  probable  also  that 
it  will  affect  the  flavor  which  the  cheese  acquires  by  keeping. 
Thus  it  may  be  that  the  agreeable  or  unpleasant  taste  of  the 
cheeses  of  certain  districts  or  daries  may  be  less  due  to  the 
quality  of  the  pastures  or  of  the  milk  itself,  than  to  the  quan- 
tity of  rennet  with  which  it  has  there  been  customary  to  coa- 
gulate the  milk. 

The  way  in  which  ilie  rennet  is  made,  no  less  than  its  state 
of  preservation  and  the  quantity  employed,  may  also  influ- 
ence the  flavor  or  other  qualities  of  the  cheese.  For 
instance,  in  the  manufacture  of  a  celebrated  French  cheese, 
that  of  Epoisse,  the  rennet  is  prepared  as  follows :  Four 
fresh  calf-skins,  with  the  curd  they  contain,  are  well  washed 
in  water,  chopped  into  small  i)ieces,  and  digested  in  a  mix- 
ture of  5  quarts  of  brandy  with  15  of  water,  adding  at  the 
same  time  2^  lbs.  of  salt,  half  an  ounce  of  black  pepper,  and 
a  quarter  of  an  ounce  each  of  cloves  and  fennel  seeds.  At 
the  end  of  six  weeks  the  liquor  is  filtered  and  preserved  in 
i^ell  corked  bottles,  while  the  membrane  is  put  into  salt- 
water to  form  a  new  portion  of  rennet.  For  making  rich 
cheeses,  the  rennet  should  always  be  filtered  clear.  Again, 
on  Mont  Dor,  the  rennet  is  made  with  white  wine  and  vine- 
gar. An  ounce  of  common  salt  is  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of 
half  a  pint  of  vinegar  with  2i  pints  of  white  wine,  and  iii 
this  solution  a  prepared  goat's  stomach  or  apiece  of  dried 
pig's  bladder  is  steeped  for  a  length  of  time.  A  single 
spoonful  of  this  rennet  is  said  to  be  sulficient  for  45  or  50 
quarts  of  milk.  No  doubt  the  acid  of  the  vinegar  and  of  the 
wine  aid  the  coagulating  power  derived  from  the  membrane. 

The  way  in  which  the  curd  is  treated, — It  is  usual  in  our 
best  cheese  districts  carefully  and  slowly  to  separate  the  curd 


THE    DAIRY.  313 

from  the  whey,  not  to  hasten  the  separation,  lest  a  larger 
portion  of  the  fatty  matter  should  be  squeezed  out  of  the 
curd  and  the  cheese  should  thus  be  rendered  poorer  than 
usual.  But  in  some  places  the  practice  prevails  of  washing 
the  curd  with  hot  water  after  the  whey  has  been  partially 
separated  from  it.  Thus  at  Gouda  in  Holland,  after  the 
■greater  part  of  the  whey  has  been  gradually  removed,  a 
quantity  of  hot  water  is  added,  and  allowed  to  remain  upon 
it  for  at  least  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  The  heat  makes  the 
cheese  more  solid  and  causes  it  to  keep  better.  In  Italy, 
again,  the  so-called  pear-shaped  caccio-cavallo  cheeses  and 
the  Toimdpalloni  cheeses  of  Gravina,  in  the  Neapolitan  ter- 
ritory, are  made  from  curd,  which,  after  being  scalded  with 
boiling  whey,  is  cut  into  slices,  kneaded  in  boiling  water, 
worked  with  the  hand  till  it  is  perfectly  tenacious  and  elastic, 
and  then  made  into  shapes.  The  water  in  which  the  curd  is 
washed,  after  standing  24  hours,  throws  up  much  oily  mat- 
ter, which  is  skimmed  off  and  made  into  butter. 

TJie  separation  of  the  whey  is  a  part  of  the  process  upon 
which  the  quality  of  the  cheese  in  a  considerable  degree 
depends.  In  Cheshire  more  time  and  attention  is  devoted  to 
the  perfect  extraction  of  the  whey  than  in  almost  any  other 
district.  Indeed,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  whey  con- 
tains sug^r  and  lactic  acid,  which  may  undergo  decomposi- 
tion, and  a  quantity  of  rennet  which  may  bring  on  fermenta- 
tion, by  both  of  which  processes  the  flavor  of  the  cheeses  must 
be  considerably  affected,  it  will  appear  of  great  importance 
that  the  whey  should  be  as  completely  removed  from  the 
curd  as  it  can  possibly  be.  To  aid  in  effecting  this  a  curd- 
mill,  for  chopping  it  fine  after  the  whey  is  strained  off,  is  in 
use  in  many  of  the  large  English  daries,  and  a  very  ingem- 
ious,  and  I  believe  effectual,  pneumatic  cheese-press  for  suck- 
ing out  the  whey  was  lately  invented.  But  the  way  in  which 
the  whey  is  separated  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference,  and  has 
much  influence  upon  the  quality  of  the  cheese.  Thus  in  Nor- 
folk, according  to  Marshall,  when  the  curd  is  fairly  set,  the 
dairy-maid  bares  her  arm,  plunges  it  into  the  curd,  and  with 
the  help  of  her  wooden  ladle  breaks  up  minutely  and  inti- 
mately mixes  the  curd  with  the  whey.  This  she  does  for  10 
or  15  minutes,  after  which  the  curd  is  allowed  to  subside,  and 
the  whey  is  drawn  oW.  By  this  agitation  the  whey  must 
carry  off  more  of  the  butter  and  the  cheese  must  be  poorer. 
In  Cheshire  and  Ayrshire,  again,  the  curd  is  cut  with  a  knife, 
but  is  gently  used  and  slowly  pressed  till  it  is  dry  enough  to 
N 


314  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE, 

be  chopped  fine,  and  thus  more  of  the  oily  matter  is  retained. 
On  the  same  principle,  in  making  the  Stilton  cheese,  the  curd 
is  not  cut  or  broken  at  all,  but  is  pressed  gently  and  with  care 
till  the  whey  gradually  drains  out.  Thus  the  butter  and  the 
cUrd  remain  intermixed,  and  the  rich  cheese  of  Stilton  is  the 
result.  Thus  while  it  is  of  importance  that  all  the  whey 
should  be  extracted  from  the  curd,  yet  the  quickest  way 
may  not  be  the  best.  More  time  and  care  must  be  bestowed 
in  order  to  effect  this  object,  the  richer  the  cheese  we  wish  to 
obtain.  The  quality  of  the  milk  or  of  the  pastures  may  often 
be  blamed  for  the  deficiencies  in  the  richness  or  other  quali- 
ties of  cheese,  which  are  in  reality  due  to  slight  but  material 
differences  in  the  mode  of  manufacturing  it.  The  kind  of  salt 
used  is  considered  by  many  to  have  some  effect  upon  the  taste 
of  the  cheese.  Thus  the  cheese  of  Gerome,  in  the  Vosges,  is 
supposed  to  derive  a  peculiar  taste  from  the  Lorena  salt  with 
which  it  is  cured.  In  Holland,  also,  the  efficacy  of  one  kind 
of  salt  over  another  for  the  curing  of  cheese  is  generally 
acknowledged. 

The  mode  in  which  the  salt  is  applied. — In  making  the  large 
Cheshire  cheeses  the  dried  curd,  for  a  single  cheese  of  60 
lbs.,  is  broken  down  fine  and  divided  into  three  equal  por- 
tions. One  of  these  is  mingled  with  double  the  quantity  of 
salt  added  to  the  others,  and  this  is  so  put  into  the  cheese- vat 
as  to  form  the  central  part  of  the  cheese.  By  this  precau- 
tion the  after-salting  on  the  surface  is  sure  to  penetrate  deep 
enough  to  cure  effectually  the  less  salted  parts.  In  the 
counties  of  Gloucester  and  Somerset  the  curd  is  pressed 
without  salt,  and  the  cheese,  when  formed,  is  made  to  absorb 
the  whole  of  the  salt  afterwards  through  its  surface.  This 
is|  found  to  answer  well  with  the  small  and  thin  cheeses 
made  in  these  counties,  but  were  it  adopted  for  the  large 
cheeses  of  Cheshire  and  Dunlop,  or  even  for  the  pine-apple 
cheeses  of  Wiltshire,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  qua- 
lity would  frequently  be  injured.  It  may  not  be  impossible 
to  cause  salt  to  penetrate  into  the  very  heart  of  a  larg^ 
cheese,  but  it  cannot  be  easy  in  this  way  to  salt  the  whole 
cheese  equally,  while  the  care  and  attention  required  must 
be  greatly  increased. 

Addition  of  cream  or  butter  to  the  curd. — Another  mode  of 
improving  the  quality  of  cheese  is  by  the  addition  of  cream 
or  butter  to  the  dried  and  crumbled  curd.  Much  diligence, 
however,  is  required  fully  to  incorporate  these,  so  that  the 
cheese  may  be  uniform  throughout.   Still  this  practice  gives 


THE    DAIRY.  315 

a  peculiar  character  to  the  cheeses  of  certain  districts.  In 
Italy  they  make  a  cheese  after  the  maimer  of  the  English, 
into  which  a  considerable  quantity  of  butter  is  worked  ;  and 
the  Reckcm  cheese  of  Belgium  is  made  by  adding  half  an 
ounce  of  butter  and  the  yolk  of  an  egg  to  every  pound  of 
pressed  curd. 

Size  of  the  chesse, — From  the  same  milk  it  is  obvious  that 
cheeses  of  diifcrent  sizes,  if  treated  in  the  same  wa}^  will,  at 
tiic  end  of  a  given  number  of  months  possess  qualities  in  a 
considerable  degree  dilferent.  Hence,  without  supposing 
any  inferiority,  either  in  the  milk  or  in  the  general  mode  of 
treatment,  the  size  usually  adopted  for  the  cheeses  of  a  par- 
(icuUir  district  or  dairy,  may  l3e  the  cause  of  a  recognized 
inferiority  in  some  quality  which  it  is  desirable  that  they 
should  possess  in  a  high  degree. 

The  method  of  curing  has  very  much  influence  upon  the 
after-qualities  of  the  cheese.  The  care  with  which  they  are 
salted,  the  warmth  of  the  place  in  which  they  are  kept  during 
the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  the  temperature  and  closeness 
of  the  cheese-room  in  w  hich  they  are  afterwards  preserved, 
the  frequency  of  turning,  of  cleaning  from  mould,  and  rubbing 
with  butter ;  all  these  circumstances  exercise  a  remarkable 
influence  upon  the  afler-qualities  of  the  cheese.  Indeed,  in 
very  many  instances  the  high  reputation  of  a  particular  dairy 
district  or  dairy  farm,  is  derived  from  some  special  attention 
to  one  or  other  or  to  all  of  the  apparently  minor  points  to 
which  I  have  just  adverted.  In  Tuscany,  the  cheeses,  after 
being  hung  up  for  some  time  at  a  proper  distance  from  the 
fire,  are  put  to  ripen  in  an  underground,  cool  and  damp  cellar  ; 
i*nd  the  cel«;brated  French  cheeses  of  Ro(iuefort  are  supposed 
to  owe  much  of  the  peculiar  estimation  in  which  they  are  held, 
to  the  cool  and  uniform  temperature  of  the  suliterranean 
caverns  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  village  have  long 
been  accustomed  to  preserve  them. 

Ammoniacal  cJieese. — The  influence  of  the  mode  of  curing 
upon  the  quality  is  shown  very  strikingly  in  the  small  annno- 
niacal  cheeses  of  Brie,  which  are  very  much  esteemed  in 
Paris.  They  are  soft  unpressed  cheeses,  which  are  allowed 
to  ripen  in  a  room  the  temperature  of  which  is  kept  between 
60"  and  70°  Farenheit,  till  they  begin  to  undergo  the  putrefac- 
tive fermentation  and  emit  an  ammoniacal  odor.  They  are 
generally  unctuous,  and  sometimes  so  small  as  not  to  weigh 
more  than  an  ounce. 


816  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Inoculating  Cheese. — It  is  said  that  a  cheese,  possessed  of 
no  very  striking  taste  of  its  own,  may  be  inoculated  with  any 
flavor  we  approve  of,  by  putting  into  it  with  a  scoop  a  small 
portion  of  the  cheese  which  we  are  desirous  that  it  should  be 
niade  to  resemble.  Of  course  this  can  apply  only  to  cheeses 
otherwise  of  equal  richness,  for  we  could  scarcely  expect  to 
give  a  Gloucester  the  flavor  of  a  Stilton,  by  merely  putting 
into  it  a  small  portion  of  a  rich  and  esteemed  Stilton 
cheese. — (Johnston  and  various  other  authorities,) 

The  statement  of  H.  P.  &  G.  Allen,  and  D.  Marvin,  each 
of  whom  received  premiums  from  the  New- York  State  Soci- 
ety is  as  follows. 

Number  of  cows  kept,  eleven.  Cheese  made  from  two 
milkings,  in  the  English  manner  ;  no  addition  made  of 
cream.  For  a  cheese  ci^  20  pounds,  a  piece  of  rennet  about 
two  inches  square  is  soaked  about  twelve  hours  in  one  pint  of 
water.  As  rennets  differ  much  in  quality,  enough  should  be 
used  to  coagulate  the  milk  sufficiently  in  about  forty  minutes. 
No  salt  is  put  into  the  cheese,  nor  any  on  the  outside  during 
the  first  six  or  eight  hours  it  is  being  pressed;  but  a  thin  coat 
of  fine  Liverpool  salt  is  kept  on  the  outside  during  the 
remainder  of  the  time  it  remains  in  press.  The  cheeses  are 
pressed  forty-eight  hours  under  a  weight  of  seven  or  eight 
cwt.  Nothing  more  is  required  but  to  turn  the  cheeses  once 
a  day  on  the  shelves. — {H.  P.  4'  G.  Allen.) 

The  milk  is  strained  in  large  tubs  over  night ;  the  cream 
stirred  in  milk,  and  in  morning  strained  in  same  tub  ;  milk 
heated  to  natural  beat;  add  color  and  rennet;  curd  broke 
fine  and  whey  off,  and  broke  fine  in  hoop  with  fast  bottom, 
and  put  in  strainer  ;  pressed  twelve  hours  ;  then  taken  from 
hoop,  and  salt  rubbed  on  the  surface  ;  then  put  in  hoop, 
without  strainer,  and  pressed  forty-eight  hours  ;  then  put  on 
tables,  and  salt  rubbed  on  surface,  and  remain  in  salt  six 
days,  for  cheese  weighing  thirty  pounds.  The  hoops  to  have 
holes  in  the  bottom  ;  the  crushing;s  are  saved,  and  set  and 
churned,  to  grease  the  cheese.  The  above  method  is  fi^r 
making  one  cheese  per  day.  As  in  butter-making,  the  utmost 
cleanliness  is  required  in  every  part  of  the  cheese-making 
premises. — {D.  Marvin.) 


sHEEr.  ^n 


CHAPTER    XYII. 


SHEEP. 

With  the  exception  of  the  dog,  there  is  no  one  of  the  hruUi 
creation  which  exhihits  the  divertiity  of  size,  color,  form, 
covering  and  general  appearance  which  characterises  the 
sheep,  and  none  which  occupies  a  wider  range  of  climate,  or 
subsists  on  a  greater  variety  of  food.  In  every  latitude  be- 
tween the  equator  and  the  arctic,  he  ranges  over  sterile 
mountains,  arid  through  the  fertile  vallies.  He  feeds  on 
almost  every  species  of  edible  forage,  the  cultivated  grasses, 
clovers,  ceieals  and  roots  ;  he  browses  on  aromatic  and  bitter 
her])s  ;  he  crops  the  leaves  and  bark  from  the  stunted  forest 
shrubs,  and  the  pungent,  resinous  evergreens.  In  some  parts 
of  Norway  and  Sweden,  when  other  resources  fail,  he  sub- 
sists on  fish  or  flesh  during  their  long  and  rigorous  winters, 
and  if  reduced  to  necessity,  he  eats  his  own  wool.  He  is 
diminutive  like  the  Orkney,  or  massive  like  the  Teeswaler. 
He  is  policerate  or  many  horned  ;  he  has  two  large  or  small 
spiral  horns  like  the  Merino,  or  is  polled  or  hornless  like 
the  mutton  sheep.  He  has  a  long  tail  like  our  own  breeds ; 
a  broad  tail,  like  many  of  the  eastern,  or  a  mere  button  of  a 
tail,  like  the  fat-rumps,  discernible  only  by  the  touch.  His 
coat  is  sometimes  long  and  coarse,  like  the  Lincolnshire  ; 
short  and  hairy,  like  those  of  Madagascar ;  soft  and  furry, 
like  the  Angola,  or  fine  and  spiral,  like  the  silken  Saxon. 
Their  color,  either  pure  or  fancifully  mixed,  varies  from  the 
white  or  black  of  oiu-  own  country,  to  every  shade  of  brown, 
dimn,  buf}',  blue,  and  !grey,  like  the  spotted  flocks  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  other  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia. 
This  wide  diversity  is  the  result  of  long  domestication,  under 
almost  every  conceivable  variety  of  condition. 

Uses. — Among  the  antediluvians,  sheep  were  immolated 
for  sacrificial  offerings,  and  their  fleeces  probably  furnished 
them  with  clothing.  Since  the  deluge,  their  flesh  has  with 
all  nations,  been  used  as  a  favorite  food  for  man  ;  and  by  the 


J^18  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

rude,  roving  nations  of  the  East,  they  are  employed  in  carry- 
ing burthens.  Their  milk  is  generally  used  by  the  uncivili- 
zed, and  to  some  extent,  by  the  refined  nations  of  Europe,  not 
only  as  a  beverage,  but  for  making  into  cheese,  butter  and 
curds.  Job  refers  to  its  use,  as  do  Isaiah  and  other  of  the 
Old  Testament  writers.  Most  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  describe  its  general  use  and  manufacture.  The  ewe's 
milk  scarcely  differs  in  appearance  from  that  of  the  cow,  but 
is  generally  thicker,  and  yields  a  pale,  yellowish  butter,  that 
is  always  soft,  and  soon  becomes  rancid.  Culley  remarks, 
"  The  cheese  is  exceedingly  pungent,  and  for  that  reason  is 
preferred  by  many,  to  that  from  the  cow."  In  Wales,  it  is 
mixed  with  that  of  the  dairy,  and  makes  a  tart,  palatable 
cheese.  We  have  never  seen  it  appropriated  for  dairy  pur- 
poses in  the  United  States,  except  by  a  few  Welsh  and  High- 
land emigrants.  The  sheep  is  frequently  employed  in  the 
dairy  regions  of  this  country,  at  the  tread-mill  or  horizontal 
wheel,  to  pump  the  water,  churn  the  milk,  or  perlbrm  other 
light  domestic  work. 

The  dignity  and  importance  of  the  shepherd's  vocation 
have  ever  been  conspicuous.  Abel,  the  supposed  twin-brother 
of  the  first-born  of  the  human  race,  was  a  "keeper  of  sheep  ;" 
and  from  this  it  may  be  fairly  inferred,  that  there  is  no  ani- 
mal, which  has  so  long  been  under  the  immediate  control  of 
man.  Abraham  and  his  descendants,  as  Mell  as  most  of  the 
ancient  patriarchs,  were  shepherds.  Job  had  14,000  sheep. 
It  is  said  of  Rachel,  the  favored  mother  of  the  Jewish  race, 
"  she  came  with  her  father's  sheep,  for  she  kept  them."  The 
seven  daughters  of  the  priest  of  Midian,  "came  and  drew 
ater  for  their  father's  flocks."  Moses,  the  statesman  and  law- 
yer, who  *'  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians, 
kept  the  flocks  of  Jethro,  his  father-in-law  ;"  and  David,  the 
future  monarch  of  Israel,  the  hero,  poet,  and  divine, .was  a 
keeper  of  sheep.  It  was  to  shepherds,  while  "  abiding  in  the 
field,  keeping  watch  over  their  flocks  by  night,"  that  the 
birth  of  the  Savior  was  announced.  The  root  of  the  Hebrew 
name  for  sheof),  signifies  fniilfiilnes.s,  abundance,  plenty;  as 
indicating  the  blessings  they  were  destined  to  confer  on  the 
human  race.  With  the  sacred  writers,  they  were  th'3  cho- 
sen  symbol  of  purily  and  the  gentler  virtues  ;  they  were  the 
victims  of  propitiatory  sacrifices  ;  and  finally  they  became  the 
type  of  redemption  to  fallen  man.  The.se  may  not  be  conside- 
red accidental  allusions  in  a  book,  whose  every  feature  is  full 
of  design.     Nor  has  the  sheep  been  less  the  subject  of  eulogy 


SHEEP.  319 

and  attention  with  profane  writers.  Among  these,  Homel- 
and Hosiod,  Virgil  and  Theocritus,  introduced  them  with 
evident  delight  in  their  pastoral  themes  ;  while  their  heroes 
and  demi-gods,  Hercules  and  Ulysses,  ^Eneas  and  Numa, 
carefully  perpetuated  them  throughout  their  regal  domains. 
In  modern  times  they  have  commanded  the  attention  of  the 
most  enlightened  nations  ;  and  their  prosperity  has  in  no  in- 
stance been  independent  of  those  useful  animals,  wherever  wool 
and  its  manufactures  have  been  regarded  as  essential  staples. 
Spain  and  Portugal,  for  more  than  two  centuries,  were  the 
most  enterprizing  nations  of  Europe,  and  during  that  period 
they  excelled  in  the  productiou  and  manufacture  of  wool. 
Flanders,  for  a  time,  was  before  England  in  the  perfection  of 
the  arts  and  the  enjoyments  of  life,  and  England  then  sent  the 
little  wool  she  raised  to  that  country  to  he  manufactured.  Her 
politic  sovereigns  soou  found  this  a  losing  game,  and  offered 
large  bounties  for  the  importation  of  artists  and  machinery. 
By  a  systematic  and  thorough  cour^se  of  legislation,  which 
looked  to  the  utmost  protection  and  augmentation  of  wool  and 
woolens,  she  has  carried  their  production  beyond  anything 
the  world  has  ever  seen.  The  small  islands  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  in  addition  to  the  support  of  their  23  000  000  of 
people,  15,000,000  of  cattle,  2,250,000  horses,  18,003,000 
swine,  and  innumerable  smaller  domestic  animals,  maintain 
50,000,000  sheep,  worth  8300,000,000 ;  and  besides  manu- 
facturing nearly  all  their  fleeces,  annually  import  an  equal 
amount  from  abroad.  The  sumptusiry  law  for  burying  the 
dead  in  woolen,  still  occupies  its  place  in  their  statute  book. 
And  beyond  all  question,  England  is  the  leading  power  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  in  the  combination  of  all  those  qualities, 
which  constitute  national  greatness,  civilization  and  strength. 

VARIETIES. 

Naturalists  have  divided  the  wild  sheep  into  four  varieties. 
The  Musimon  (Ovis  Musimon,)  inhabiting  Corsica,  Sardinia 
and  other  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Spain  and  Greece  and  some  other  regions  bordering 
upon  that  inland  sea,  have  been  frequently  domesticated  and 
mixed  with  the  long  cultivated  breeds.  The  Argali  (O.  Am- 
mon)  ranges  over  the  steppes  or  elevated  plains  of  Central 
Asia,  northward  and  eastward  to  the  ocean.  They  are  larger, 
more  hardy  and  more  untameable  than  the  Musimon.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  (O.  Montana,)  frequently  called  the 
big-horn  by  our  western  hunters,  is  found  on  the  prairies  west 


320  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  Mississippi,  and  throughout  the  wild  mountainous 
regions,  extending  through  California  and  Oregon  to  the 
Pacific.  They  arc  larger,  but  in  other  respects  resemble 
the  Argali,  of  which  they  are  probably  descendants,  as  they 
could  cross  upon  the  ice,  at  Behring's  straits,  from  the  noth- 
eastern  cost  of  As4a.  Like  the  argali,  when  caught  young 
they  are  easily  tamed ;  but  we  are  not  aware  that  they  have 
ever  been  bred  with  the  domestic  sheep.  Before  the  country 
was  overrun  by  the  white  man,  they  probably  inhabited  the 
region  bordering  on  the  Mississippi.  Father  Hennepin,  a 
French  Jesuit,  who  wrote  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago,  and 
who  falsely  claims  to  have  first  discovered  that  river,  often 
speaks  of  meeting  with  goats,  in  his  travels  through  what  is 
now  the  territory  embraced  by  Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  The 
wild,  clambering  propensities  of  these  animals,  occupying 
the  giddy  heights,  far  beyond  the  reach  of  tlie  traveller,  and 
the  outer  coating  of  hair,  (supplied  underneath  however,  with 
a  thick  coating  of  soft  wool,)  gives  to  them  much  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  that  animal.  In  summer  they  are  generally 
ibund  single  ;  but  when  they  descend  from  their  isolated 
rocky  heights  in  winter,  tliey  are  gregarious,  marching  in 
flocks  under  the  guidance  of  leaders.  The  Bearded  SJieep  of 
Africa  (O.  Tragelaphns)  inhabit  the  mountains  of  Barbary 
and  Egypt.  They  are  covered  with  a  soft,  reddisli  hair,  and 
liave  a  mane  hanging  below  the  neck,  and  large  locks  of  hair 
at  the  ancle. 

The  domesticated  sheep  (O.  Aries)  embraces  all  the 
varieties  of  the  subjugated  species.  Whether  they  have  de- 
scended from  any  one  of  the  wild  races,  is  a  question  yet 
undetermined  among  naturalists ;  but  however  this  may  be, 
n^ny  of  the  varieties  apparently  difter  less  from  their  wild 
nattiesakc3  than  fro  m  each  other.  The  Fat-rumped  and 
Broad-tailed  sheep  arc  much  more  extensively  diff*used  than 
any  other.  They  occupy  nearly  all  the  south-eastern  part  of 
Europe,  Western  and  Cenlral  Asia,  and  Northern  Africa. 
They  arc  supposed  to  be  the  varieties  whicli  were  propogated. 
by  the  patriarchs  and  their  descendants,  the  Jewish  race. 
This  is  inferred  from  various  passages  in  the  Penteteuch, 
Exodus,  xxix.  22;  Leviticus,  iii,  9;  viii.  25;  ix.  19,  and 
some  others,  where  *4he  fat  and  the  rump"  are  spoken  of  in 
coimexion  with  ofterings,  in  whicii  the  fat  was  always  an  ac- 
ceptible  ingredient.  Dr.  Boothroyd  renders  one  of  the  fore- 
going passages,  "  the  large  fat  tail  entire,  taken  clear  to  the 
rump."     It  is  certain  this  variety  gives  indisputable  evidence 


SHEEP.  321 

of  remote  and  continued  subjugation.  Their  long,  pendant, 
drowsy  ears,  and  the  highly  artificial  posterior  developments, 
are  characteristic  of  no  wild  or  recently  domesticated  race. 

This  breed  consists  of  numerous  sub-varieties,  differing  in 
all  their  characteristics  of  size,  fleece,  &;c.,  with   quite  as 
many  and  marked  shades  of  distinction  as  the  modern  Euro- 
pean varieties.     In  Madagascar,  they  are  covered  with  hair ; 
in  the  south  of  Africa,  with  coarse  wool ;  in  the  Levant,  and 
along  the  Mediterranean,  the  wool  is  comparatively  tine  ;  and 
from  that  of  the  fat-rumped  sheep  of  Thibet,  the  exquisite  Cash- 
mere shawls  are  manufactured.  Both  rams  and  ewes  are  some- 
times bred  with  horns,  and  sometimes  without,  and  they  ex- 
hibit a  great  diversity  of  color.     Some  yield  a   carcass   of 
scarcely  30  lbs.,  while  others  have  weighed  200  lbs.  dressed. 
The  tail  or  rump  varies  greatly,  according  to  the   purity  and 
style  of  breeding;    some  are  less  than   one  eighth,   while 
others  exceed  one  third  the  entire  dressed  weight.     The  fat  of 
the  rump  or  tail  is  considered  a  great  delicacy,  and  in  hot 
climates  resembles  oil,  and  in  colder,  suet.     The  broad-tailed 
were   brought  into'  this  country  about  50  years   since,  by 
Commodore    Barron  and  Judge  Peters,  and  bred  with  the 
native  flocks.     They  were   called   the  Tunisian  Mountain 
sheep.     Some  of  them  were  subsequently  distributed  by  Col. 
Pickering,  of  Massachusetts,  among  the  farmers  of  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  and   their  mixed  descendants  were  highly  prized  as 
prolific  and  good  nursers,  coming  early  to  maturity,  attaining 
large  weights  of  a  superior  quality  of  carcass,  and  yielding  a 
heavy  fleece    of  excellent  wool.      The   principal  objection 
brought  against  them,  was  the  difficulty  of  propogation,  which 
always  required  the  assistance  of  the  shepherd.     The  lambs 
were  dropped  white,  red,  tawny,  bluish  or  black;  but  all 
excepting  the  black,  grew  white  as  they  approached  maturity, 
retaining  some  spots  of  the  original  color  on  the  cheeks  and 
legs,  and  sometimes  having  the  entire  head  tawny  or  black. 
The  few  which  descended  from  those  originally   imported 
into  this  country,  have  become  blended  with  American  flocks, 
and  are  now  scarcely  distinguishable  from  them. 

Native  or  common  Sheep  of  the  United  States. — 
Strictly  speaking,  there  are  no  sheep  indigenous  to  North 
America,  excepting  the  Ovis  Montana,  or  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep.  Before  the  introduction,  of  the  improved  European 
breeds,  during  the  present  century,  our  sheep  consisted  gener- 
ally of  a  hardy,  long-legged,  coarse,  open-fleeced  animal,which 
yielded  according  to  attention  and  feed,  from  1  i  to  4  lbs.  of 
N* 


323  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

indifferent  wool.     We  have  seen  numerous  flocks  within  the 
last  20  years,  of  the  pure  bred  native,  whose  bellies  were 
entirely  destitute  of  wool,  and  sometimes  the  whole  carcass 
was  bare,  excepting  a  mere  strip  or  ridge  like  a  mane,  reach- 
ing from  the  head  to  the  tail.  The  wool  which  was  retained 
on  the  neck,  back  and  sides,  was  frequently  matted  almost  as 
firmly  as  a  leather  apron  ;  and  that  on  the  thighs,  and  some- 
times  on  the  sides,  was  often  composed  almost  wholly  of  long 
hair.     Although  indifferently  formed  in  comparison  with  the 
best  breeds  of 'the  present  day,  being  thin  in  the  breast  and 
back,  light  quartered,  and  slow  in  coming  to  maturity,  they 
yet   possessed   some    good   qualities.     They  were    prolific, 
excellent  nurses,  tallowed  well,   and    yielded  good  mutton. 
There  were  occasionally  some  smutty-nosed  or  l)rockle-faced 
sheep  among  them,  distinguished  by  thier  additional  size, 
superior  merits  and  courage.     These  were  usually  the  leaders 
of  the  fiock  in  their  marauding  expeditions  on  their  neigh- 
bor's domains ;  and  in  common  with  the  others,  they  were 
eminently  adapted  to  purvey  for  themselves  on  the  frontier 
settlements.     There  werejbesides,  some  black  or  dark  choco- 
late-brown members  in  every  flock,  which  were  much  valued 
by  the  thrifly  housewife  for  their  wool,  which  afforded  an 
economical  mixture  for  jackets,  hose  and  trowsers,  known  as 
sheep's  gray.     Our  original  stock  were   principally  derived 
from  England,  where  their  counterparts  may  be  seen  at  the 
present  day,  in  the  refuse  breeds  of  that  country.     When 
these  sheep  were  well  selected  and  properly  bred,  there  was 
rapid  and   satisfactory  improvememt,  and  from  such  flocks, 
mixed   with   some   of  the  more  recently  improved  varieties, 
have  sprung  many  valuable  animals.     There   was  but  one 
exception  to  this  general  character  of  the  native  flocks,  so  far 
as   our  observation    extended,    which   was   a   considerably 
numerous,  and  pro]jal)ly  accidental  variety,   known   as  the 
Otier  breed  or  Creepers.     These  were  an   excessively  duck- 
legged  anima),  with   well   Ibrmed   bodies,  full  chest,  broad 
backs,  yielding  a  close  heavy  fleece  of  medium  quality^of 
w^ool.     Tiiey  were  deserved  favorites,  where  indifferent  stone 
or  wood  fences  existed,  as  their  power  of  locomotion  was 
absolutely  limited  to  their  enclosures,  if  protected  by  a  fence 
not  less  than  two  feet  high.     The  quality  of  their  mutton  was 
equal,  while  their  aptitude  to  fatten  was  decidedly  superior  to 
their  longer  legged  contemporaries.     Th(;y  arc  probably  now 
nearly  or  quite  extinct,     (jleneral  Washington  produced  an 
excellent  variety,  from  a  cross  of  a  Persian  ram,  upon  the 


8HEEF.  323 

Bake  well,  which  bore  wool  14  inches  in  length,  soft  and  silky, 
and  admirably  suited  to  combing.  They  were  called  the 
Arlington  sheep,  but  they  have  long  since  become  incorporated 
wi)h  the  other  flocks  of  the  country. 

The    Merino. — This    is    undoubtedly    among    the    most 
ancient  race  of  sheep  extant.     The  loose  descriptions  and 
indefinite  generalities  of  the  ancient  writers,  leave  much  to 
conjecture  on  this  point ;  yet  we  have  a  few  passages  from 
Pliny,  Columella  and  some  other  Roman  authors,  which  leave 
little  doubt  that  the  Merino  was  bred  in  their  age,  and  had 
even  been  introduced  into  Italy  from  Greece.     It  is  a  matter 
of  history,  that  the  Greeks  had  choice  breeds  of  sheeps  at  an 
early  day,  which  they  might  have  derived  from  Egypt,  Tyre 
and  Asia  Minor,  as  they  were  intimately  connected   in  com- 
merce with  those   countries,  where  the  woolen  manufacture 
early  reached  great  perfection.     It  is  supposed  that  the  cele- 
brated Argonautic  expedition,  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece, 
undertaken  by  the  Greeks  nearly  1300  years  before   Christ, 
resulted  in  procuring  a  valuable  race  of  sheep  from  Colchis, 
in  the  Euxine.     However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  when 
Augustus  extended  his  peaceful  sceptre  over  half  the  known 
world,  the  Romans  were  in  possession  of  some  flocks,  bearing 
fleeces  of  exceeding  fineness  and   beauty.     They  had    been 
reared  in  the  province  of  Apulia  on  the  south-east  coast  of 
Italy,  and  were  called  Tarentine,  from  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince.    Here  then  may  have  been  one  branch  of  the   Merino 
family.     Another   is  undoubtedly  described   by  Pliny,  who 
says,  "  the  red  Jleece  BcBtica"  which  comprises  the  modern 
Spanish  provinces  of  Jaen,  Cordova,  Seville,  Andalusia  and 
Granada,    "  was  of  still  superior  quality  and  had  no  fellow." 
All  the  Spanish  coast  on  the  Mediterranean,  of  which  Baetica 
Ibrmed  a  considerable  part,  was  early  colonized  by  the  enter- 
prising Greeks ;  and  this  red  Jleece  tJuit  had  no  fellow,  was 
probably  introduced   by  them   at  an  early  day,  and  by  their 
desendants  had   been  carried  to  a  still  higher  degree  of  per- 
fection than  that  of  Apulia.    Columella,  the  uncle  of  the  writer 
on  agriculture,  a  wealthy  emigrant  to  Spain,  from  Italy,  A.  D. 
30,  carried  with  him  some  of  the  Tarentine  sheep,  and  thus 
added  to  the  tine-wooled  sheep  of  Spain.     These  two  ancient 
streams,  united  perhaps  with  a  third,  from  the  more  ancient 
stock  of  the  Euxine,  (for  Strabo  assert  that  some  of  the  finest 
wooled  sheep  were  brought  from  that  region  in  his  time,  and 
sold  for  the  enormous  sum,  of  $750,)  flowed  on  in  an  unin- 
terrupted current,  over  that  broad  country,  and  brought  down 


324  AMERICAN    AGiRICULtUIlE. 

to  modern  times  the  unrivalled  race  of  the  Merino.  The 
limited  region  of  Italy,  overrun  as  it  repeatedly  was,  during 
and  after  the  times  of  the  late  Emperors,  by  hordes  of  barba- 
rians,  soon  lost  her  pampered  flocks,  while  the  extended 
regions  of  Spain,  intersected  in  every  direction  by  almost 
impassable  mountains,  could  maintain  their  more  hardy  race, 
in  defiance  of  revolution  or  change.*  The  conquest  by  the 
Moors  of  apart  of  those  fine  provinces,  so  far  from  checking, 
served  rather  to  encourage  the  production  of  fine  wool. 
They  were  not  only  enterprising,  but  highly  skilled  in  the  use- 
ful arts,  and  carried  on  extensive  manufactories  of  fine  woolen 
goods,  which  they  exported  to  difterent  countries.  After 
their  expulsion  in  the  15th  century,  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
the  Spaniards  preserved  these  manufactures  in  part,  and  sedu- 
lously  cherished  their  fine  flocks,  and  knowing  the  incompar- 
able advantage  they  had  in  them,  their  sovereigns,  except  in 
a  few  isolated  instances,  strictly  prohibited  their  exportation. 
Exportation  of  Merinoes  from  Spain. — History  asserts 
that  Henry  VIH  of  England,  by  permission  of  Charles  V, 
imported  3000  sheep,  but  of  what  kind  is  not  mentioned,  they 
having  numerous  varieties  in  Spain.  If  of  the  true  Merino, 
it  will  explain  the  superior  quality  of  the  English  middle- 
wools,  the  llycland,  South  Downs  and  some  others.  The 
first  well  authenticated  exportation  of  the  Merino,  was  made 
to  Sweden  in  1723,  by  Alstroemer,  which  solved  the  pro- 
blem of  their^capacity  for  sustaining  their  character,  on  rough 
fare  and  in  a  high  northern  latitude.  Lasteyrie,  who  wrote 
50  years  after  the  experiment  had  been  tried,  speaks  of  their 
injprovement  both  in  carcass  and  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
fleece.  The  next  exportation  was  made  to  Saxony,  in  1765, 
a^  consisted  of  105  rams  and  114  ewes,  but  from  what 
flocks  they  were  taken,  history  nowhere  mentions.  A  second 
exportion  to  that   country,  was  made  in  1778,  of  110  tliat 


*  Whatever  distrust  may  be  attached  to  these  scraps  of  History,  whicli  appa- 
rently establinh  the  remote  antiquity  of  the  Merino;  tliis  much  is  absolutely  cci  >' 
lain,  that  they  are  a  race  whose  quahties  are  inbred  to  an  extent  surpassed  by  no 
others.  They  have  been  improved  in  Die  general  weight  and  evenness  of  their 
fleece,  as  in  the  celebrated  flocli  of  Rambouillet*,  in  tiie  uniform  and  excessive 
finenesB  of  fibre  aainkheSaxons,  and  in  their  form  and  feeding  qualities  in  various 
countries ;  biit  there  h.ia  never  yet  been  deterioration  either  in  quantity  or  quality 
of  fleece  or  carcass  wherever  transported,  if  supplied  with  suitable  food  and  atten- 
tion. Most  sheep  annually  shed  their  wool  if  unclip|>ed;  while  the  merino  retains 
its  fleece,  sometimes  for  five  years,  when  allowed  to  remain  unshorn.  This  we 
conceive  affords  conclusive  evidence  of  long  continued  breeding  among  them- 
selves, by  which  the  very  constitution  of  the  wool-producing  organs  beneath  tlie 
skin,  have  become  permanently  changed,  and  this  property  is  transmitted  to  a  great 
extent  even  among  the  crosses,  thus  marking  them  as  an  ancient  and  peculiar 
race. 


SHEEP.  325 

were  variously  selected  from  the  best  flocks  in  Spain.  From 
these  have  descended  the  high  bred,  silken-fleeced  Saxons, 
whose  wool  stands  confessedly  without  a  rival.  In  1775,  the 
Enn3ress  Maria  Theresa  imported  300  Merinos  into  Ger- 
many, and  placed  them  on  the  imperial  farm  in  Hungary.  In 
1786,  an  importation  was  made  into  Denmark  and  her  provin- 
ces; and  again,  in  1797,  another  flock  of  300  was  brought  into 
the  kingdom,  and  placed  at  Esserum,  about  eight  leagues 
from  Copenhagen.  In  1786, 100  rams  and  200  ewes  were 
imported  into  Prussia,  most  of  which  were  allowed  to  perish 
from  disease,  but  their  places  were  fully  made  up  by  later  im- 
portations. The  same  year,  400  ewes  and  rams  were  selected 
from  the  choicest  Spanish  flocks,  and  placed  on  the  Royal 
farm  of  Rambouillet,  in  France,  which  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  celebrated  flock  which  bears  that  name.  A  small  flock  of 
inferior  animals  was  clandestinely  procured  by  George  III,  of 
England,  in  1788,  which  attracted  little  attention.  In  1791, 
a  small  but  choice  flock,  was  presented  to  that  monarch,  by 
the  Cortes  of  Spain,  which  soon  acquired  high  favor  among 
many  intelligent  breeders.  A  part  of  these  were  kept  pure, 
and  their  descendants  furnished  the  superb  flock  of  700  nigret- 
tis,  which  procured  for  their  owner,  Mr.  Trimmer,  in  1829,  the 
gold  medal  from  the  London  Society  of  Arts  Others  were 
mixed  with  different  flock,  in  the  kingdom,  to  the  evident  im- 
provement of  their  fleeces. 

The  first  importation  of  Merinoes  into  the  United 
States  which  resulted  in  the  propagation  of  a  pure  breed,* 
was  made  by  Chancellor  Livingston,  then  minister  at  the 
court  of  Versailles,  who  sent  two  choice  rams  and  ewes  from 
the  Rambouillet  flock  in  1802,  to  Claremont,  his  country  seat 
on  the  Hudson.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year,  Col. 
Humphreys,  our  minister  in  Spain,  sent  out  nearly  one  hun- 
dred Merinoes,  which  were  followed  by  more  numerous  flocks 
from  the  same  and  otjier  sources.  The  largest  importations  of 
the  Merino,  however,  were  made  through  Mr.  Jarvis  of  Ver- 
mont, then  U.  S.  Consul  in  Spain,  in  1809,  and  immediately 
thereafter.  He  first  shipped,  as  he  slates,  "200  Escurial, 
afterwards,  1400  Paulars,  1700  Aqueirres,  100  Nigrettis  and 
about  200  Montarcos.  2700  Montarcos,  were  sent  out  by  a 
Spaniard  and  Portuguese,  and  about  300  Guadaloupes  by 
others ;  also  200  to  300  Paulars,  by  Gen.  Downie,  to  Boston. 


*  One  or  more  pure  Merinoes,  were  imported  into  Massachusetts,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century,  by  a  citizen  of  that  state,  but  they  were  soon  mixed 
with  other  flocks,  and  resulted  in  the  perpetuation  of  no  distinct  flocks. 


3^6  ABiEEICAN    AGRICULTURE  i 

or  the  Montarco  flock  shipped  by  others,  about  2500  came  to 
Boston,  Providence,  New  York,  and  other  ports.  All  were 
imported  in  the  latter  part  of  1809  and  '10,  and  early  in  1811, 
and  were  the  only  Leonese  Transhumantes,  if  we  include 
Humphrey's  and  Livingston's,  (which  I  have  no  doubt  were  of 
the  same  stock,)  that  were  ever  shipped  to  the  United  States." 
Varieties  of  the  Spanish  Sheep. — Besides  several  other 
breeds  of  sheep  in  Spain,  consisting  of  long  and  coarse  wool 
and  that  of  a  medium  staple,  embraced  under  the  different 
names  of  Chorinoes,  Choaroes  or  ChunaJis,  the  Merino  is  dis- 
tinguished by  two  general  divisions;  the  Transhumantes  or 
travelling,  and  the  Estantes  or  stationary  flocks.  The  for- 
mer are  subdivided  according  to  the  Provinces  they  occupy, 
into  Leonese,  Segovian  and  Sorian.  Many  of  the  Estantes 
were  of  the  best  quality  in  respect  to  carcass,  constitution 
and  fleece,  and  such  as  were  highly  bred  and  in  the  hands  of 
intelligent  breeders,  were  not  surpassed  by  any  of  the  Span- 
ish flocks.  There  were  also  many  ciioice  sheep  among  the 
Segovian  and  Sorian  Transhumantes,  but  in  general  they 
were  decidedly  inferior  to  those  of  Leon.  These  last  were 
universally  regarded  as  the  prime  flocks  of  Spain.  They 
comprised  the  Escurial,  tlie  Paular,  the  Nigretti,  the 
Aqueirresor  Muros,  the  Montarco,  the  Guadaloupe,  Infan- 
tado  and  some  others. 

There  is  much  contradictory  testimony  as  to  the  compara- 
tive merits  of  the  last  mentioned  flocks,  as  tiiey  were  found 
in  Spain  ;  which  is  owing  in  part,  doubtless,  to  the  diflerence 
in  the  specimens  subjected  to  examination.  We  subjoin  some 
of  the  most  reliable  authorities  on  this  subject.  M.  Lastey- 
rie,  who  investigated  this  matter  closely  says,  *'  the  Guada* 
loupe  have  the  most  perfect  form,  and  are  likewise  cele- 
brated for  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their  wool.  The  Pau- 
Ifir  bear  much  wool  of  a  fine  quality,  but  they  have  a  more 
evident  enlargement  behind  the  ears,  and  a  greater  degree 
ol'  throat inesSf  and  the  lambs  have  a  coarse  hairy  aj)pearance 
which  is  succeeded  by  excellent  wool.  The  lambs  of  the 
Infantado  have  the  same  hairy  coat  when  young.  The 
Nigretti  are  the  largest  and  strongest  of  all  the  travelling 
sheep  in  Spain."  Mr.  Livingston  says,  "  The  l^lscurial  is  tire 
most  perfect  of  all  the  travelling  flocks  in  Spain  ;  the  Gua- 
daloupe for  form,  fineness  and  abundance  of  the  fleece  ;  the 
Paular  with  similar  fleeces  are  larger  bodied.  Those  of 
Castile  and  Leon  have  the  largest  with  the  finest  coat. 
Those  of  Soria  are  small  with  very  fine  wool  ;  and  those 


SHEEP.  327 

also  of  Valencia  which  do  not  travel,  and  like  the  last  have 
fine  wool  but  of  a  very  short  staple."    Mr.  Jarvis,  who  spent 
many  years  in  Spain  under  every  advantage  for  studying 
them  closely,  and  who  imported  and  has  since  bred  large  num- 
bers of  them  on  his  estate  in  Vermont,  says,   "  The  Paulars 
were  undoubtedly  one  of  the  handsomest  flocks  in  Spain. 
They  were  of  middling  height,  round  bodied,  well  spread, 
straight  on  the  back,  the  neck  of  the  bucks  rising  in  a  mode- 
rate curve  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of  the  head, 
their  head  handsome,  with  aquiline  curve  of  the  nose,  with 
short,  fine  glossy  hair  on  the  face,  and  generally  hair  on  the 
legs,  the  skin  pretty  smooth,  that  is,  not  rolling  up  or  doub- 
ling about  the  neck  and  body,  as  in  some  other  flocks  ;  the 
crimp  in  the  wool  was  not  so  short  as  in  many  other  flocks, 
the  wool  was  somewhat  longer,  but  it  was  close  and  compact, 
and  was  soft  and  silky  to  the  touch,  and  the  surface  was  not 
so  much   covered   with  gum.     This   flock  was  originally 
owned  by  the  Carthusian  friars  of  Paular,  who  were  the  best 
agriculturists  in  Spain,  and  was  sold  by  that  order  to  the 
Prince  of  Peace  when  he  came  into  power.     The  Nigretti 
flock  were  the  tallest  Merinoes  in  Spain,  but  were  not  hand- 
somely formed,  being  rather  flat-sided,  roach-back  and  the 
neck  inclining  to  sink  down  from  the  withers  ;  the  wool  was 
somewhat   shorter  than  the  Paular  and  more  crimped,  the 
skin  was  more  loose  and  inclined  to  double,  and  many  of 
them  were  wooled  on  their  faces  and  legs  down  to  their 
hoofs.     All  the  loose-skinned  sheep  had  large  dewlaps.     The 
Aqueirres  were  short-legged,  round,  broad  bodied,  with  loose 
skins,  and  were  more  wooled  about  their  faces  and  legs  than 
any  other  flock  I  ever  saw,  the  wool  was  more  crimped  than 
the  Paular,  and  less  than  the  Nigretti,  but  was  thick  and 
soft.     This  flock  formerly  belonged  to  the  Moors  of  Spain, 
and  at  their  expulsion,  was  bought  by  the  family  of  Aqueirres. 
The  wool  in  England  was  known  as  the  Muros  flock,  and 
was  highly  esteemed.     All  the  bucks  of  these  three  flocks 
had  large  horns.     The  Escurials  were  about  as  tall  as  the 
Paulars,  but  not  quite  so  round  and  broad,  being  in  general 
rather  more  slight  in  their  make  ;  their  wool  was  crimped, 
but  not  quite  so  thick  as  the  Paular  or  Negrctti,  nor  were 
their  skins  so  loose  as  the  Nigretti  and  Aqueirres,  nor  had 
they  so  much  wool  on  the  face   and  legs.     The   Montarco 
bore  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Escurials.  The  Escu- 
rial  flock  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  crown,  but  when 
Philip  the  II  built  the  Escurial  palace,  he  gave  them  to  the 


3'i8  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

friars,  whom  he  placed  in  a  convent  that  was  attached  to  the 
palace,  as  a  source  of  revenue.  These  four  flocks  were 
moderately  gummed.  The  Guadaloupe  flock  was  rather 
larger  in  the  bone  than  the  two  preceding,  about  the  same 
height,  but  not  quite  so  handsomely  formed,  their  wool  was 
thick  and  crimped,  their  skins  loose  and  doubling,  their  faces 
and  legs  not  materially  different  from  the  two  latter  flocks, 
but  in  general  they  were  more  gummed  than  either  of  the 
other  flocks.  In  point  of  fineness  there  was  very  little  dif- 
ference between  these  six  flocks,  and  as  I  have  been  told  by 
well  informed  persons,  there  is  very  little  difference  in  this 
respect  among  the  Leonese  Transhumantes  in  general.  The 
Escurials,  the  Montarcos  and  the  Guadaloupes  were  not  in 
general  so  heavy-horned  as  the  other  three  flocks,  and  about 
one  in  six  of  the  bucks  were  without  horns." 

The  Saxon,  we  have  before  seen,  is  one  of  the  varieties 
of  the  pure  bred  Merino,  the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  by 
an  importation  of  some  of  the  choicest  animals  into  Saxony, 
in  1765.  The  great  care  and  attention  bestowed  >^pon  these 
sheep  by  the  Elector,  the  nobility  and  the  most  intelligent 
farmers,  soon  carried  them  to  a  point  of  uniformity  and 
excellence  of  fleece,  never  exceeded  by  the  best  of  the  origi- 
nal flocks.  The  breeders  were  selected  with  almost  exclu- 
sive reference  to  the  quality  of  the  fleece.  Great  care  was 
taken  to  prevent  exposure  throughout  the  year,  and  they 
were  housed  on  every  slight  emergency.  The  consequence 
of  this  course  of  breeding  and  treatment  has  been,  to  reduce 
the  size  and  weight  of  fleece,  and  partially  to  impair  that 
hardiness  and  vigor  of  constitution,  which  universally  cha- 
racterised the  original  Transhumantes.  In  numerous  instan- 
ces, this  management  resulted  in  permanent  injury  to  the 
character  of  their  flocks,  which  America  has  severely  felt  in 
several  importations  of  worthless  animals,  which  a  too  great 
eagerness  for  improvement,  induced  her  flockmasters  to  use 
with  the  Spanish  Merinoes  and  their  descendants,  as  a  means 
for  this  object,  but  which  has  resulted  in  the  introduction  of 
fatal  diseases  and  serious  deterioration  in  their  flocks. 

Tlie  first  importation  of  Saxons  into  this  country  was  made- 
in  1823,  of  four  good  rams,  two  of  which  went  to  Boston  and 
the  others  to  Philadelphia.  The  next  was  made  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  consisted  of  75  rams  and  ewes  which  were 
brought  to  Boston  and  sold  at  public  auction,  and  afterwards 
were  scattered  over  the  country.  Another  lot  of  180  fol- 
lowed to  the  same  place,  the  next  year,  and  was  sold  in  the 


SHEEP.  329 

same  manner,  but  at  an  increased  price,  some  selling  as  high 
$450  each.  These  prices  excited  the  spirit  of  speculation, 
and  the  following  year  witnessed  the  importation  of  near 
3000,  many  of  which  were  decidedly  inferior.  These  were 
all  thrown  upon  the  market  for  the  most  they  would  com- 
mand, and  in  many  instances,  the  sales  not  half  covering  the 
cost  of  importation,  the  enterprise  was  abandoned  as  a  specu- 
lation, or  commercial  operation.  The  late  Henry  D. 
Grove,  of  Hoosic,  New-York,  a  native  of  Germany,  and  a 
highly  intelligent  and  thorougldy  bred  shepherd,  accompa- 
nied some  of  the  best  early  importations  to  this  country.  He 
selected  105  choice  animals  for  his  own  breeding,  which  he 
imported  in  1827,  and  70  more  equally  good,  in  1828,  and 
with  these  he  formed  the  flock  from  which  he  bred  to  the 
time  of  his  decease,  in  1844.* 

The  Rambouillet  flock  was  founded  in  1786,  by  Louis 
XVI,  from  a  selection  of  400  of  the  best  Spanish  sheep, 
which  were  placed  on  the  royal  farm  at  Rambouillet.  These, 
like  the  Saxon,  received  all  the  attention  \vhich  intelligence 
and  wealth  could  bestow,  and  the  consequence  was  soon 
manifest  in  their  larger  size,  and  the  increased  weight  and 
uniformity  in  the  fineness  of  their  fleece  ;  the  last  improve- 
ment being  particularly  evident  in  the  absence  of  the  coarse 
wool  which  in  many  cases  infested  the  quarters,  and  the  jarr, 
or  hair  which  frequently  abounds  on  the  flanks,  legs  and  thighs 
of  the  original  merino.  Besides  the  crown  flocks  at  Rambou- 
illet, they  are  found  in  equal  perfection  on  several  other  of  the 
royal  farms,  especially  those  of  Malmaison,  Perpignan,  Aries, 
Clermont,  and  some  others.  These  flocks  have  been  bred 
for  hardy  constitution,  large  carcass  and  heavy  fleece,  of  as 
much  fineness  as  consistent  with  large  weights,  and  as  uniform 
in  quality  throughout,   as  possible.     Mr.   Gilbert,  who  was 

*  The  average  weight  of  fleece  from  Uie  eniire  flock  of  Mr.  Grove,  nearly  all  of 
which  were  ewes  and  lambs,  as  stated  by  him  to  the  writer,  in  184*2,  was  2  lbs.  14 
ounces,  thoroughly  washed  on  the  sheeps' back.  This  was  realized  after  a  short 
summer  and  winters'  keep,  when  the  quantity  of  hay  or  its  equivalent,  did  not 
exceed  by  actual  weight,  1^  lbs.  per  day,  except  to  the  ewes,  which  received  an 
additional  quantity  just  before  and  after  lambing.  This  treatment  was  attended 
with  no  disease  or  loss  by  deatli,  and  with  an  increase  of  lambs,  equalling  one 
for  every  ewe. 

In  a  flock  of  pure  Saxony  sheep  owned  by  Mr.  Smith  of  Connecticut,  .is  stated  in 
a  letter  from  the  owner,  published  in  the  American  Shepherd,  104  ewes  raised  101 
lambs,  and  yielded  341  lbs  of  wool,  which  sold  at  70  cents  per  lb.  For  the  18 
months  preceding,  he  lost  but  three  animals  out  of  300,  from  ordinary  casualties. 
But  some  flocks  of  pure  Saxony,  do  not,  in  good  condition,  average  over  2  lbs.  per 
head.  A  recent  importation  (May,  1946)  made  by  Mr.  Taintorof  Connecticut, 
consisting  of  four  bucks  and  four  ewes,  from  the  celebrated  Saxon  flock  of  Baron 
de  Spreck,  shew  a  size  and  vigor  of  constitution  equal  to  any  of  their  Merino 
progenitors. 


330  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

particularly  familiar  with  them,  says,  "  almost  all  the  fleeces 
of  the  rams,  from  two  years  old  and  upwards,  weigh  (un- 
washed) from  12  to  13  lbs. ;  but  the  mean  weight,  taking 
the  rams  and  the  ewes  together,  has  not  quite  attained  to  8 
lbs.,  after  deducting  the  tags  and  the  wool  of  the  belly."  The 
French  pound  is  about  one-twelfth  heavier  than  the  English; 
but  from  the  general  custom  of  folding  the  sheep  in  France, 
feeding  them  in  fallows,  and  wintering  them  in  houses,  the 
fleece  becomes  very  dirty.  The  loss  in  washing  (fit  for  man- 
ufacturing) is  abou)  60  per  cent.,  so  that  the  clean  fleece  of 
the  ram  will  average  about  6  lbs.,  and  that  of  the  whole 
flock,  something  under  4  lbs. 

The  first  importation  of  the  Rambouillefs  to  this  country,  was 
in  1801,  by  M.  Dellesert,  of  Paris,  for  M.  Dupont,  then  in 
New- York,  and  consisted  of  4  choice  rams,  only  one  of  which, 
Don  Pedro,  reached  this  country.  He  was  used  among  the 
native  ewes  near  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  for  three  years,  and  then 
transferred  to  Delaware,  where  he  effected  great  improvement 
among  the  native  flocks.  The  second  was  that  made  by  the 
late  Chancellor  Livingston,  before  alluded  to.  There  was  ano- 
ther in  1840,  by  Mr.  Collins,  of  Connecticut,  comprising  30 
select  ewes  and  2  rams.  All  these  sheep  possessed  the  cha- 
racteristics peculiar  to  the  variety  as  described.  A  still  more 
recent  importation  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Taintor,  of  Con- 
necticut, (during  the  present  summer  of  1846,)  of  23  ewes 
and  3  bucks.* 

*  We  subjoin  a  description  of  these  from  the  Editor  of  the  American  Agricultu- 
rist, New-Vork.  The  rams,  though  young,  are  the  most  promising  animals  of 
their  breed  we  ever  saw,  and  when  full  grown,  will  weigh  at  least  from  2'J5  lo 
250  lbs.  each.  Tlie  sire  of  one  was  sold  the  past  season  for  $500.  He  sheared 
2.3  lbs.  of  unwashed  wool.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  ewes,  we  measured  them  after 
they  were  shorn,  and  found  they  varied  from  25^  to  29  inches  in  height  over  the 
withers ;  and  lest  it  may  be  thought  this  superior  height  is  attained  by  extra  long 
legs,  we  will  add,  that  the  height  of  the  under  side  of  their  bodies  from  the  ground, 
vnis  from  9i  to  12  inches;  which,  according  to  our  observation,  is  no  greater  in 
proportion  to  their  size,  than  that  of  good  American  Merino  sheep.  Their  weights 
we  took  after  being  shorn.  They  varied  from  124  to  1.53  lbs.  Some  of  them  were 
quite  thin  in  flesh,  the  largest  especially,  which,  if  in  line  condition  and  her  fleece 
on.  would  weigh  at  least  200  lbs.  The  following  is  the  weight  of  their  fleeces  un- 
washed. We  took  them  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  several  witnesses,  and  as  fast 
as  shorn  from  the  ewes'  backs  The  scales  we  used  did  not  mark  less  than  one 
quarter  of  a  pound,  which  will  account  for  the  absence  of  odd  ounces. 
No.  17 13    lbs.         No. 

"27 15     •' 

'*    61 163    " 

"    71 14}   " 

"    84 16,     •• 

"    87 16|    " 

"94 17     ♦' 

109  107 

The  fleeces  were  about  fourteen  months  old,  but  they  had  lost  some  on  their 
voyage  out,  and  on  account  of  the  latenesa  of  the  season,  were  not  shorn  near  aa 


109 

17 

110 

17 

117 

16j 

IIB 

:   .15 

133 I4i 

195 

...,..,.13] 

SHEEP.  331 

■    The  progress  of  the  Merino  in  the  United  States. 

— Though  reaching  back  but  half  a  century,  the  Merino  flocks 
of  this  country  have  been  very  fluctuating  as  to  their  value,  in- 
crease and  improvement.  When  first  introduced,  they  were 
viewed  with  distrust  by  the  majority  of  our  farmers ;  and  it 
was  not  till  after  several  years'  experience  of  their  para- 
mount merits,  that  they  were  generally  disseminated.  But  the 
confidence  of  our  flock-masters  having  once  been  secured,  it 
has  never  been  withdrawn,  and  they  have  ever  since,  been 
cherished  favorites.  The  prices  for  choice  Merinos  rapidly 
increased  after  a  few  years,  and  Livingston  states  the  average 
price  for  rams,  in  1811,  at  SlOOO,  and  some  were  sold  at  a 
much  higher  rate.  This  was  the  period  of  the  embargo, 
when  our  infant  manufactures  were  just  starting  into  life  ;  and 
being  followed  by  war  with  the  greatest  commercial  nation 
of  the  world,  we  were  thrown  entirely  on  our  own  resources 
for  the  supply  of  our  woolen  and  other  fabrics,  and  wool  and 
sheep  maintained  their  full  value  till  the  return  of  peace,  in 
1815.  The  flooding  of  our  country  with  foreign  goods,  under 
low  duties,  which  succeeded  this  event,  either  broke  down  or 
effectually  paralyzed  our  woolen  manufactures,  and  wool,  of 
course,  felt  the  full  weight  of  this  crushing  influence.  The 
Merino  rapidly  declined  in  value,  till  its  price  nearly  approxi- 
mated to  that  of  the  native  sheep.  Their  merits  had,  how- 
ever, become  so  conspicuous,  that  the  low  prices  produced  a 
more  general  diffusion,  and  they  and  their  crosses  were  thus 
sown  broad-cast  over  the  country. 

close  as  it  is  customary ;  besides,  on  several  of  them,  from  half  to  one  pound  of 
the  wool  was  left  on  the  heads  and  legs,  for  the  purpose  of  Riving  an  idea  of  their 
fleeces  to  those  who  may  call  hereafter  to  look  at  them.  Taking  all  these  things 
into  consideration,  it  was  the  unanimous  opinion  of  several  sheep-masters  present, 
that  the  wool  clipped  from  these  ewes  was  not  more  than  would  have  been  equiva- 
lent to  one  year's  growth.  We  shall  not  compare  the  weight  of  these  fleeces  with 
what  is  generally  termed  clean  washed  wool,  as  it  is  the  most  uncertain  and 
unsatisfactory  comparison  which  can  be  made,  for  when  it  comes  to  be  cleansed 
hy  the  manufacturer,  it  will  vary  in  loss  from  20  to  .50  per  cent,  just  as  the  case 
may  happen.  It  was  the  unbiased  opinion  of  several  wool  dealers  present,  and  our 
own,  (hat  the  shearing  above  would  yield  at  least  35  lbs.  of  cleansed  wool,  fitted 
for  manufacturing  without  further  loss,  out  of  every  100  lbs.  shorn.  The  fourteen 
ewes  yielded  2I6  lbs.  unwashed,  which  would  be  equivalent  to  7.>  lbs.  10  oz.  tho- 
roughly cleansed,  or  an  average  of  .1  lbs.  6  oz.  per  head.  If  any  of  our  readers  are 
desirous  to  know  what  this  would  come  up  to,  clean  washed,  they  may  safely  add 
one-third.  This  would  bring  the  averacre  as  wool  growers  usually  dispose  of  their 
fleeces,  to  7  lbs.  3  oz.  per  head,  a  yield  totally  unprecedented  in  this  country.  The 
usual  average  weight  of  good  Merino  ewes  is  about  half  this.  The  average  of  the 
flocks  in  Europe  from  which  these  sheep  were  chosen,  is,  for  rams  from  15  to  17 
lbs.  per  head;  for  ewes  11  to  13  lbs.,  unwashed.  The  average  price  of  such  wool  in 
its  unwashed  state,  is  26  cents  per  lb.  of  our  money.  These  sheep  show  great  vigor 
of  constitution,  and  are  remarkably  well  formed,  with  enormous  dewlaps  and  folds 
all  over  the  carcass.  Their  fleeces  are  very  close,  thickly  covering  the  head  and 
legs  as  well  as  the  body,  and  are  uncommonly  even,  the  wool  being  nearly  as  good 
on  the  flanks  as  on  the  shoulders,  while  its  felting  properties  are  unsurpassed.  In 
fineness  of  quality  it  is  equal  to  the  best  American  Merino. 


332  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE. 

The  introduction  of  the  Saxons,  in  great  numbers,  in  1826, 
many  of  which  were  excessively  diminutive  and  diseased, 
and  their  indiscruninate  use  with  our  pure  bred  Merinos,  was 
a  serious  interruption  to  the  career  of  improvement  in  many 
of  our  flocks.  Their  mixture  with  the  best  Saxons  was  no 
further  detrimental,  than  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  fleece,  and 
to  a  certain  extent,  lessen  the  peculiar  hardiness  of  the  ori- 
ginal Transhumantes,  which  had  been  fully  preserved  by 
their  descendants  in  this  country.  The  use  of  well  selected 
Saxon  rams  with  Merino  flocks  was  extensively  practised, 
and  it  is  still  persisted  in  by  intelligent  flock-masters,  after  20 
years'  experience,  who  are  satisfied  that  they  find  it  for  their 
interest  to  continue  this  style  of  breeding.  The  animals 
being  smaller,  consume  less,  and  they  probably  produce  a 
quantity  of  wool  in  proportion  to  their  food,  which,  from  its 
improved  and  uniform  quality,  commands  a  higher  price  in 
the  market.  Wherever  they  are  not  sufliciently  hardy,  they 
can  be  bred  back  towards  the  Spanish  Merino  standard,  by 
the  use  of  some  of  the  stouter  rams.  Their  natures  arc  intrin. 
sically  the  same.  They  are  otdy  divergent  streams  from  the 
same  original  fountain,  and  when  again  united,  they  readily 
coalesce  and  flow  onwards,  without  violence  or  disorder. 

The  Merino,  as  might  reasonably  have  been  anticipated, 
"when  properly  managed,  has  improved  from  a  variety  of 
causes.  Though  kept  scrupulously  pure  in  Spain,  they  were 
seldom  bred  with  that  refinement  of  taste,  or  that  nice  judg- 
ment which  distinguishes  the  accomplished  modern  breeders. 
Their  management  was  too  entirely  entrusted  to  ignorant 
shepherds  or  careless  agents,  to  secure  that  close  attention 
which  is  essential  to  improvement.  The  sheep  had  to  perform 
a  journey  of  several  hundred  miles  twice  in  a  year,  to  and 
fiom  their  distant  Sierras ;  and  it  was  absolutely  essential 
tlnpit  strong  animals  should  be  selected  for  breeding ;  and  to 
secure  this  object,  those  were  frequently  used  which  were  de- 
ficient in  the  most  profitable  qualities.  They  \vere  also 
closely  bred  in-and-in,  seldom  or  never  departing  from  a 
particular  flock  to  procure  a  fresh  cross.  Their  wild,  noma- 
dic life,  approaching  nearly  to  that  of  their  natural  state,  and( 
their  peculiarly  healthful  pasturage,  alone  prevented  a  serious 
deterioration  from  this  cause.  When  brought  into  the  United 
States,  the  flocks  were  soon  mingled  with  each  other,  and  for 
many  years  past,  probably,  not  an  unmixed  descendant  of  any 
distinct  original  flock  could  be  traced.  Abundance  of  appro- 
priate food  has  been  given  them,  without  the  labor  of  long 


SHEEP.  333 

and  fatiguing  journeys  ;  and  lastly,  there  has  been  much  care 
used  ill  the  selection  of  the  most  profitable  animals  for  breed. 
The  spirit  of  improvement  has  been  recently  awakened  to 
this  important  branch  of  American  husbandry,  and  if  not  ar- 
rested by  any  untoward  national  policy,  it  will  soon  result  in 
giving  us  numerous  flocks  of  as  choice  sheep  as  the  world  af- 
fords, as  we  have  already  all  the  elements  within  ourselves 
for  its  attainment. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Merino. — The  prominent  peculi- 
arities of  the  Merino,  are  the  abundance  and  fineness  of  its 
fleece,  the  tenacity  with  which  it  is  held,  its  crimped  or  spiral 
tbrm,  its  felting  properties,  and  the  excessive  quantity  of 
yolk,  giving  to  it  that  softness  which  distinguishes  it  from  all 
others.  Their  large  horns  are  common  to  several  other  va- 
rieties. Their  hoofs  are  sometimes  singularly  long,  reaching 
8  or  10  inches  when  allowed  to  grow.  The  horns,  hoofs  and 
wool  scarcely  differ  in  their  chemical  constituents,  and  the 
peculiar  development  of  the  two  former,  is  justly  considered 
as  an  additional  evidence  of  their  wool-bearing  properties. 
The  yolk  in  most  of  the  sheep,  forms,  with  the  dust  which 
adheres  to  it,  a  firm  crust  on  the  exterior,  and  together  with 
the  compactness  of  the  fleece,  it  offers  considerable  resistance 
to  the  open  hand  on  being  pressed,  giving  the  impression  of 
rigidity.  This  outer  covering  repels  the  rain,  the  snow,  and 
the  wind  like  a  coat  of  mail,  thus  fitting  the  Merino  to  endure 
exposure  better  than  any  other  sheep.  On  opening  the  crust, 
the  wool  is  found  of  a  brilliant,  golden  hue,  sparkling  with 
yolk,  and  firmly  held  together  in  masses,  hardly  distinguisha- 
ble from  the  cocoon  of  the  silk-worm.  The  wool  closely 
covers  every  part  of  the  body,  and  frequently  the  entire  legs 
and  head,  excepting  a  part  of  the  face. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  Merino  is  its  longevity.  They 
attain  a  great  age  when  properly  managed,  and  in  healthy 
localities,  sometimes  breed  till  20  years  of  age.  The  Merino 
may  be  described,  generally,  as  a  small-boned,  closely  made, 
medium  sized  sheep,  varying  from  80  lbs.  of  live  weight  for  a 
small  ewe,  to  160  lbs.  for  good  sized  wethers  and  rams,  in 
ordinary  condition.  They  are  light  in  the  shoulders  and 
chest,  and  are,  altogether,  more  deficient  in  form  than  the 
best  mutton  sheep.  This  apparent  difference  is  materially 
lessened  when  both  are  denuded  of  their  fleece  ;  as  the  longer 
pile  of  the  latter  covers  defects,  which  would  manifest  them- 
selves under  the  closer  covering  of  the  Merino.  Yet,  with 
this  seeming  deficiency,  Young  found,  in  feeding,  between 


332  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE. 

The  introduction  of  the  Saxons,  in  great  numbers,  in  1826, 
many  of  which  were  excessively  diminutive  and  diseased, 
and  their  indiscriminate  use  with  our  pure  bred  Merinos,  was 
a  serious  interruption  to  the  career  of  improvement  in  many 
of  our  flocks.  Their  mixture  with  the  best  Saxons  was  no 
further  detrhnental,  than  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  fleece,  and 
to  a  certain  extent,  lessen  the  peculiar  hardiness  of  the  ori- 
ginal Transhumantes,  which  had  been  fully  preserved  by 
their  descendants  in  this  country.  The  use  of  well  selected 
Saxon  rams  with  Merino  flocks  was  extensively  practised, 
and  it  is  still  persisted  in  by  intelligent  flock-masters,  after  20 
years'  experience,  who  are  satisfied  that  they  find  it  for  their 
interest  to  continue  this  style  of  breeding.  The  animals 
being  smaller,  consume  less,  and  they  probably  produce  a 
quantity  of  wool  in  proportion  to  their  food,  which,  from  its 
improved  and  uniform  quality,  commands  a  higher  price  in 
the  market.  Wherever  they  arc  not  sufficiently  hardy,  they 
can  be  bred  back  towards  the  Spanish  Merino  standard,  by 
the  use  of  some  of  the  stouter  rams.  Their  natures  are  intrin. 
sically  the  same.  They  are  only  diveigent  streams  from  the 
same  original  fountain,  and  when  again  united,  they  readily 
coalesce  and  flow  onwards,  without  violence  or  disorder. 

The  Merino,  as  might  reasonably  have  been  anticipated, 
when  properly  managed,  has  improved  from  a  variety  of 
causes.  Though  kept  scrupulously  pure  in  Spain,  they  were 
seldom  bred  with  that  refinement  of  taste,  or  that  nice  judg- 
ment which  distinguishes  the  accomplished  modern  breeders. 
Their  management  was  too  entirely  entrusted  to  ignorant 
shepherds  or  careless  agents,  to  secure  that  close  attention 
which  is  essential  to  improvement.  The  sheep  had  to  perform 
a  journey  of  several  hundred  miles  twice  in  a  year,  to  and 
from  their  distant  Sierras ;  and  it  was  absolutely  essential 
th|it  strong  animals  should  be  selected  for  breeding ;  and  to 
secure  this  object,  those  were  frequently  used  which  were  de- 
ficient in  the  most  profitable  qualities.  They  were  also 
closely  bred  in-and-in,  seldom  or  never  departing  from  a 
particular  flock  to  procure  a  fresh  cross.  Their  wild,  noma- 
dic life,  approaching  nearly  to  that  of  their  natural  state,  andf 
their  peculiarly  healthful  pasturage,  alone  prevented  a  serious 
deterioration  from  this  cause.  When  brought  into  the  United 
States,  the  flocks  were  soon  mingled  with  each  other,  and  for 
many  years  past,  probal)ly,  not  an  unmixed  descendant  of  any 
distinct  original  flock  could  be  traced.  Abundance  of  appro- 
priate food  has  been  given  them,  without  the  labor  of  long 


333 

and  fatiguing  journeys  ;  and  lastly,  there  has  been  much  care 
used  in  the  selection  of  the  most  profitable  animals  for  breed. 
The  spirit  of  improvement  has  been  recently  awakened  to 
this  important  branch  of  American  husbandry,  and  if  not  ar- 
rested by  any  untoward  national  policy,  it  will  soon  result  in 
giving  us  numerous  flocks  of  as  choice  sheep  as  the  world  af- 
fords, as  we  have  already  all  the  elements  within  ourselves 
for  its  attainment. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Merino. — The  prominent  peculi- 
arities of  the  Merino,  are  the  abundance  and  fineness  of  its 
fleece,  the  tenacity  with  which  it  is  held,  its  crimped  or  spiral 
form,  its  felting  properties,  and  the  excessive  quantity  of 
yolk,  giving  to  it  that  softness  which  distinguishes  it  from  all 
others.  Their  large  horns  are  common  to  several  other  va- 
rieties. Their  hoofs  are  sometimes  singularly  long,  reaching 
8  or  10  inches  when  allowed  to  grow.  The  horns,  hoofs  and 
wool  scarcely  difier  in  their  chemical  constituents,  and  the 
peculiar  development  of  the  two  former,  is  justly  considered 
as  an  additional  evidence  of  their  wool-bearing  properties. 
The  yolk  in  most  of  the  sheep,  forms,  with  the  dust  which 
adheres  to  it,  a  firm  crust  on  the  exterior,  and  together  with 
the  compactness  of  the  fleece,  it  offers  considerable  resistance 
to  the  open  hand  on  being  pressed,  giving  the  impression  of 
rigidity.  This  outer  covering  repels  the  rain,  the  snow,  and 
the  wind  like  a  coat  of  mail,  thus  fitting  the  Merino  to  endure 
exposure  better  than  any  other  sheep.  On  opening  the  crust, 
the  wool  is  found  of  a  Ijrilliant,  golden  hue,  sparkling  with 
yolk,  and  firmly  held  together  in  masses,  hardly  distinguisha- 
ble from  the  cocoon  of  the  silk-worm.  The  wool  closely 
covers  every  part  of  the  body,  and  frequently  the  entire  legs 
and  head,  excepting  a  part  of  tho  face. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  Merino  is  its  longevity.  They 
attain  a  great  age  when  properly  managed,  and  in  healthy 
localities,  sometimes  breed  till  20  years  of  age.  The  Merino 
may  be  described,  generally,  as  a  small-boned,  closely  made, 
medium  sized  sheep,  varying  from  80  lbs.  of  live  weight  for  a 
small  ewe,  to  160  lbs.  for  good  sized  wethers  and  rams,  in 
ordinary  condition.  They  are  light  in  the  shoulders  and 
chest,  and  are,  altogether,  more  deficient  in  form  than  the 
best  mutton  sheep.  This  apparent  difference  is  materially 
lessened  when  both  are  denuded  of  their  fleece  ;  as  the  longer 
pile  of  the  latter  covers  defects,  which  would  manifest  them- 
selves under  the  closer  covering  of  the  Merino.  Yet,  with 
this  seeming  deficiency,  Young  found,  in  feeding,  between 


336  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

The  localities  in  which  Merino  sheep  can  be  profitably  kept 
in  the  United  States,  are  wherever  the  pastures  are  sweet  and 
dry ;  the  climate  not  too  hot,  and  the  land  not  too  valuable 
for  other  purposes.  Wool  is  the  great  object  in  the  sheep 
husbandry  of  this  country,  and  when  sheep  farms  are  remote 
from  the  large  markets,  the  Merino  will  make  much  the  most 
profitable  returns.  In  the  neighborhood  of  cities,  where 
large  and  fat  sheep  and  early  lambs  bear  a  high  price,  the 
mutton  sheep  may  be  substituted. 

The  Soutii-Down. — This  valuable  sheep  has  been  known 
and  bred  for  a  long  time  on  the  chalky  downs  of  England, 
where  it  has  always  maintained  the  character  of  a  hardy 
animal,  yielding  a  medium  quality  of  wool,  and  furnishing 
mutton  of  a  superior  flavor.  It  was  not  however,  till  within 
the  last  70  years,  that  any  considerable  attention  was  devoted 
to  its  improvement.  Since  that  period,  its  fine  points  have 
been  remarkably  developed,  which  is  shown  in  its  improved 
size  and  form,  and  its  early  maturity  and  productiveness. 
The  late  Mr.  John  Ellman  of  England,  was  the  first  who 
took  them  thoroughly  in  hand ;  and  so  eminent  was  his  suc- 
cess, that  he  founded  a  flock  which  has  been  the  source  from 
which  all  the  best  blood  has  been  since  derived.  His  crite- 
rion of  a  good  South-Down  is  as  follows : — "  The  head  small 
and  hornless ;  the  face  speckled  or  grey,  and  neither  too  long 
nor  too  short.  The  lips  thin,  and  the  space  between  the 
nose  and  the  eyes  narrow.  The  under  jaw,  or  chap,  fine  and 
thin ;  the  ears  tolerably  wide,  and  well  covered  with  wool, 
and  the  forehead  also,  and  the  whole  space  between  the  ears 
well  protected  by  it,  as  a  defence  against  the  fly.  The  eye  full 
and  bright,  but  not  prominent.  The  orbits  of  the  eye — the 
eye-cap,  or  bone, — not  too  projecting,  that  it  may  not  form 
a  fatal  obstacle  in  lambing.  The  neck  of  a  medium  length, 
thin  towards  the  head,  but  enlarging  towards  the  shoulders 
where  it  should  be  broad  and  high,  and  straight  in  its  whole 
course  above  and  below.  The  breast  should  be  wide,  decj>, 
and  projecting  forwards  between  the  fore  legs,  indicating  a 
good  constitution,  and  a  disposition  to  thrive.  Correspon- 
ding with  this,  the  shoulders  should  be  on  a  level  with  thfc 
})ack,  and  not  too  wide  above ;  they  should  bow  outward  from 
the  top  to  the  breast,  indicating  a  springing  rib  beneath,  and 
leaving  room  for  it.  The  ribs  coming  out  horizontally  from 
the  spine,  and  extending  far  backward,  and  the  last  rib  pro- 
jecting more  than  the  others  ;  the  back  flat  from  the  shoul- 
ders to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail ;  the  loin  broad  and  flat ; 


SHEEP.  337 

the  rump  long  and  broad,  and  the  tail  set  on  high  and  nearly 
on  a  level  with  the  spine.  The  hips  wide  ;  the  space 
between  them  and  the  last  rib  on  either  side  as  narrow  as 
possible,  and  the  ribs,  generally,  presenting  a  circular  form 
like  a  barrel,  The  belly  as  straight  as  the  back.  The  legs 
neither  too  long  nor  too  short.  The  fore-legs  straight  from 
the  breast  to  the  foot ;  not  bending  inward  at  the  knee,  and 
standing  far  apart  both  before  and  behind  ;  the  hocks  having 
a  direction  rather  outward,  and  the  twist,  or  the  meeting  of 
the  thighs  behind,  being  particularly  full ;  the  bones  fine,  yet 
having  no  appearance  of  weakness,  and  of  a  speckled  -or 
dark  color.  The  belly  well  defended  with  wool,  and  the 
wool  coming  down  before  and  behind  to  the  knee,  and  to  the 
hock ;  the  wool,  short,  close,  curled,  and  fine,  and  free  from 
spiry  projecting  fibres." 

Other  breeders  have  commenced  where  Ellman  left  off, 
and  have  apparently  pushed  their  improvement  to  its  utmost 
capacity ;  and  especially  has  this  been  done  by  Messrs. 
Grantham  and  Webb,  the  latter  of  whom,  while  preserving 
all  the  essential  merits  of  the  sheep,  has  carried  the  live 
weight  of  breeding  rams,  to  250  lbs.,  and  well  fattened  wethers 
to  200  lbs.  dressed  weight.  Many  of  the  choicest  animals 
have  been  imported  into  this  country,  and  they  are  now  to 
be  found  in  limited  numbers  in  almost  every  State  of  the 
Union.  The  wool  was  formerly  short  and  used  only  for 
cloths,  flannels,  &c.  It  has  been  considerably  lengthened 
in  many  of  the  late  flocks,  and  with  the  improvements  in 
the  combing  machinery,  is  now  much  used  in  England,  as 
a  combing  wool.  The  quantity  produced  is  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  the  Merino  flocks  when  well  kept,  varying  according 
to  tbe  size  and  style  of  breeding,  from  3  to  4  lbs.  of  clean 
washed  wool,  which  in  quantity,  does  not  difter  materially 
from  half-blood  Merino,  and  sometimes  rather  exceeds  it. 
The  larger  animals  of  course,  produce  fleeces  of  much 
greater  weight,  sometimes  reaching  to  8  or  9  lbs.  The  South 
Down  will  subsist  on  short  pasture,  but  well  repays  full  feed- 
ing. It  attains  early  maturity,  is  hardy  and  prolific,  frequently 
producing  two  at  a  birth.  Like  all  highly  improved  English 
breeds,  it  is  not  a  long-lived  sheep.  It  may  be  considered  in 
its  prime  at  three.  The  wethers  may  be  fattened  at  18  to  30 
months,  and  the  ewes  at  3  to  5  years,  when  first  required  as 
breeders.  The  last  are  sometimes  allowed  to  come  in  with 
a  lamb  at  a  year,  but  they  cannot  be  sustained  in  vigor,  if  put 
to  breeding  before  two. 
O 


338  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

The  Chevoit  is  thus  described  by  Blacklock:  "They 
have  a  bare  head,  with  a  long  jaw,  and  white  face^  but  no 
horns.  Sometimes  they  have  a  shade  of  grey  upon  the  nose, 
approaching  to  dark  at  the  tip ;  at  others,  a  tinge  of  lemon 
color  on  the  face,  but  these  markings  scarcely  alfect  their 
value.  The  legs  are  clean,  long,  and  small-boned,  and  cov- 
ered with  wool  to  the  hough  ;  but  there  is  a  sad  want  ot 
depth  at  the  breast,  and  of  l)readth  both  there  and  on  the 
chine.  A  fat  carcass  weighs  fjom  12  lbs.  to  18  lbs.  per  quar- 
ter, and  a  medium  lleece  about  3  lbs.  The  purest  specimens 
of  this  breed  are  to  be  found  on  the  Scotch  side  of  the  Che- 
voit hills,  and  on  the  high  and  stony  mountain  farms  which 
lie  between  that  range  and  the  sources  of  the  Tevoit.  These 
sheep  are  a  capital  mountain  stock,  provided  the  pasture 
resembles  the  Chevoit  hills,  in  containing  a  good  proportion 
of  rich  herbage."  They  are  eminently  adapted  to  high 
lands  and  a  severe  climate,  though  less  so  than  the  Black- 
faced  or  Heath  sheep  of  Scotland.  They  have  become  an 
American  sheep,  by  their  repeated  introduction  into  this 
country.  A  late  importation  of  several  choice  sheep  was 
made  by  Mr.  Carmichael  of  New-York.  The  wool  on  these 
is  from  5  to  7  inches  long,  coarse,  but  well  suited  to  combing. 
Like  the  Downs,  it  has  heretofore  been  classed  among  the 
middle  loools,  but  these  specimens  would  seem  to  indicate 
that  they  are  verging  towards  the  long  wools. 

The  Bakewell  or  Leicester,  the  Cotswold  and 
Lincolnshire  possess  several  qualities  in  common,  and  it  is 
only  a  practiced  eye  that  can  readily  detect  the  ditlerence. 
This  resemblance  arises  from  a  recent,  common  origin.  They 
are  all  large  and  hornless;  of  a  pure  wh.te;  with  long, 
coarse  and  heavy  fleeces ;  excellent  mutton  sheep  ;  coming 
early  to  maturity,  and  capable  of  carrying  enormous  quanti- 
fies of  fat.  There  have  been  from  time  immemorial,  numer- 
ous flocks  of  these  large,  coarse  wooled  sheep,  existing  in 
certain  parts  of  England  under  a  variety  of  names,  and  par- 
taking of  some  slight  peculiariry  of  features,  according  to  the 
district  in  which  they  are  bred.  Thus,  besides  those  above 
mentioned,  there  were  the  Teeswater,  the  Romney  Marsji> 
the  Kentish,  the  Bampton,  the  Exmoor,  <^c.,  all  of  which  were 
deficient  in  form,  slow  feeders,  and  late  in  coming  to  maturity. 

Impi'ovement  of  the  Long  Wooh. — The  late  Robert  Bakewell 
first  commenced  a  decided  iniprovcment  with  the  Leicesters, 
nearly  a  century  since.  He  began  by  selecting  the  choicest 
sheep  in  England,  which  possessed  the  essential  qualities ; 


suEEP.  339 

and  by  judicious  feeding  and  management  throughout,  he  soon 
brought  them  up  to  a  character  widely  differing  from  the  ori- 
ginal with  which  he  started.  So  eminent  was  his  success, 
that  in  17S7,  he  let  three  rams  for  1250  pounds,  (about 
.$8/200,)  and  was  ofit'red  10-50  pounds,  (about  $5,200,)  for 
20  ewes.  Soon  after  this,  he  received  the  enormous  price  of 
800  guineas,  or  e^4,000,  ibr  the  use  of  two  thirds  of  a  single 
ram  ibr  a  season,  reserving  the  other  third  for  himself.  He 
rcdnccd  the  bone  and  ollkl  or  worthless  parts  of  the  carcass, 
and  increased  the  weight  of  the  valuable  parts,  and  especially 
iheir  tendency  to  fatten  and  early  maturity.  This  was  effec- 
ted mainly,  by  a  nice  discrimination,  which  has  probably 
never  been  svu'passed,  if  it  has  ever  been  equalled.  He  se- 
lected medium  sizes  for  the  breed,  with  as  much  evenness  and' 
perlection  of  form  as  possible,  for  he  found  that  excellence  and 
})roiitable  f.'eding  qualities  were  seldom  connected  with  extra. 
size,  large  bones,  or  imperfect  form.  He  also  observed  the 
dispoiition  to  fatten  in  individuals,  and  used  only  such  as 
were  conspieuous  in  this  respect.  He  relied  more  than  all 
upon  their  (juality  of  handling  well,  depending  even  more 
upon  the  elastic,  mellow  touch,  than  upon  (he  most  symmet- 
rical ilgure.  He  used  oidy  the  choicest  rams,  a  little  under 
size,  while  the  ewes  were  of  tidl  medium  weight.  The  pro- 
geny were  pushed  with  a  full  suj)ply  of  nutritious  Ibod,  and 
syslematically  brought  to  early  maturity.  Connected  with 
this,  was  his  practice  of  inand-in  breedings  or  breeding  the 
|)arent  upon  the  progeny,  for  several  successive  generations, 
which  had  the  tendency  still  further  to  refine  the  bone  and 
olf.d,  and  impress  most  effectually,  the  desirable  characteris- 
tics of  the  race.  It  is  even  credibly  asserted,  that  he  produced 
rot  in  such  of  his  fattening  sheep  as  he  wished  to  mature 
early  for  the  shambles,  as  in  the  first  stages  of  that  loathsome 
disease,  the  fat-secreting  qrgans  accomplish  their  office  more 
rapidly  than  in  a  state  of  perfect  health,  and  it  at  least  secured 
them  against  breeding  when  they  left  his  own  hands.  It  is 
certain,  that  Bakewell  carried  his  refining  system  to  such  an 
extent,  as  partially  to  destroy  the  procreative  powers  ;  and 
he  was  subsequently  obliged  to  introduce  new  animals  to  re- 
invigorate  and  continue  his  Hock.  The  general  system  of 
Bakewell,  however,  was  attended  with  complete  success. 
He  produced  a  race  of  animal*,  not  only  far  beyond  what 
England  had  over  before  seen,  l)ut  which,  in  all  the  qualities 
he  endeavored  to  establish,  have  not  been  exceeded  since ; 
and  his  improved  Leicesters  have  come  down  to  the  present 


340  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

day  as  perfect  as  he  left  them,  showing  conclusively,  that  he 
not  only  formed,  but  stamped  the  peculiarities  of  the  breed, 
with  a  permanence  which  yet  bears  witness  to  his  genius. 
One  of  these  attained  the  enormous  live  weight  of  368  lbs., 
and  dressed,  248  lbs. 

The  Cotswold  and  Lincolnshire, — Other  breeders  were  not 
slow  in  following  in  Bakewell's  footsteps  with  different  breeds, 
and  the  Cotswold  and  Lincolnshire  especially,  have  become 
the  subjects  of  an  equally  decided  improvement,  while  the 
errors  of  Bakewell  were  entirely  avoided.  They  possess  a 
rather  more  desirable  robustness,  approaching  in  some  few 
specimens,  almost  to  coarseness,  as  compared  with  the  finest 
Leicesters ;  but  they  are  more  hardy  and  less  liable  to  dis- 
ease. They  attain  as  large  a  size  and  yield  as  great  an 
amount  of  wool,  of  about  the  same  value.  These  breeds 
scarcely  differ  more  from  each  other,  than  do  flocks  of  a  simi- 
lar variety,  which  have  been  scprately  bred  for  several 
generations.  They  are  prolific,  and  when  well  fed,  the 
ewes  will  frequently  produce  two  lambs  at  a  birth,  tor  which 
they  provide  liberally  from  their  udder  till  the  time  for  wean- 
ing.   The  weight  of  the  fleece  varies  from  4  to  8  lbs.  per  head. 

Peculiarity  of  long  wool  and  its  uses. — The  striking 
p(  culiarity  of  the  long  wools,  is  in  the  prochiclion  of  a  fleece, 
which  is  perfectly  ada[)ted,  by  its  length  and  the  absence  of 
the  felting  property,  to  the  manufacture  of  worsted  stuffs,  bom- 
bazines, mousseline  de  laincs,  &c.  This  is  a  branch  of  our 
manufactures  for  which  we  had  little  material  that  was  suita- 
ble, till  the  introduction  of  the  long  wools;  and  its  rapid  ex- 
tension within  the  past  few  years,  clearly  shows,  that  a  large 
and  increasing  demand  for  this  kind  of  wool  will  continue  at 
remunerating  prices.  J^esides  its  uses  for  combing,  it  is  ex- 
tensively manufactured  into  blankets,  carpeting,  and  many 
"bther  fabrics. 

Importation  or  Long  Wo(  ls. — Several  of  the  15akewells 
were  imported  during  the  last  century;  and  many  flocks 
containing  some  of  the  best  sp;  oimens,  have  been  introduced 
and  scattered  over  every  section  of  the  country.  The  lar- 
gest of  any  single  importation  of  the  long  wools,  was  ma^e 
by  Messrs.  (.'orning  &  Sotham,  in  1H42,  and  immediately 
preceding,  and  consisted  of  70  or  80  choice  Cotswolds. 

Breeding  the  Long  Wools. — Some  information  on  this 
subject  will  be  found  under  the  head  o^  breeding  Merinos^  and 
improvement  ofiJie  Long  Wools.  The  ram  and  ewe  should  be 
selected  from  the  best  specimens  of  the  breed  which  is  to  be 


SHEEP.  341 

perpetuated.  Tliere  are  peculiarities  of  form  or  appearance 
in  each,  which  should  be  carefully  observed.  Neither  should 
a  violent  cross  ever  be  taken  for  the  purpose  of  perpetuation, 
as  suggested,  under  the  head  of  principles  of  breeding,  in  a 
previous  chapter ;  such  as  between  those  possessing  totally 
opposite  properties,  as  the  Merino  and  Long  Wools;  and  there 
is  no  conceivable  advantage  in  mixing  the  middle  wools, 
South  Downs,  &;c.,  with  either.  Lord  Western  has  long 
experimented  on  the  blending  of  the  Merino  and  Long  Wools 
through  several  generations,  without  any  success,  nor  is  it 
believed  to  be  attainable.  There  is  no  evenness  or  integrity 
of  character  either  in  the  animal  or  fleece  from  such  mix- 
tin-es,  nor  is  it  possible  to  foretel  the  character  of  progeny 
from  such  bastard  crosses.  The  general  rule,  that  like  be- 
gets  like,  will  not  hold  true  here,  for  the  animal  comes  large 
or  small,  with  a  long  or  short  fleece,  fine  or  coarse,  or  inter- 
mixed ;  and  this  loo  is  repeated  through  numerous  genera- 
tions,  when  the  immediate  parents  exhibit  properties  ahogether 
unlike  the  oflspring,  and  which  it  derives  from  some  remote 
ancestry.  This  practice  will  do  to  produce  lambs  for  the 
butcher,  as  the  consequence  of  a  fresh  cross  is  greater  stami- 
na and  thrift ;  and  it  is  found  that  lambs  thus  bred,  attain  an 
early  and  full  development.  Thousands  of  such  are  annually 
bred  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  Long  Island,  and  around 
our  large  cities,  and  in  the  worst  possible  w-ay  ;  as  the  large, 
coarse  ram  is  used  on  the  delicate  Saxon  ewe  ;  yet  the  lambs 
thrive  and  command  a  good  price  in  the  market,  and  the 
owner  is  satisfied  to  pocket  the  result.  Yet  nothing  could 
be  more  absurd  than  to  propagate  from  such  progeny  for  any 
other  purpose. 

The  mixture  of  breeds  of  similar  character,  is  attended 
with  the  best  consequences.  Such  was  tiie  intermingling  of 
the  improved  Leicesters  with  the  Cotswold  and  Lincolnshire, 
by  which  the  latter  were  refined;  and  such  was  the  use  of  the 
latter  with  tlie  Leicesters,  wlien  they  became  impotent  and 
almost  worthless  from  over-refinement  in  breeding.  Good 
results  have  foflowed  the  mixture  of  the  South  and  Hampshire 
Downs.  A  marked  improvement  in  the  Merino  in  this  coun- 
try ,  has  been  claimed  by  Mr.  Jarvis,  and  several  others,  from 
the  mixture  of  the  various  flocks,  which  for  ages  had  been  kept 
distinct  in  Spain  ;  and  the  saipe  result  is  known  to  have  fol- 
lowed a  similar  course  with  the  Rambouillet  and  Saxon  flocks. 

The  ewe  goes  with  young  about  five  months,  varying  from 
145  to  162  days.     Each  flock-master  will  of  course  deter- 


342  AMERICAN     ACxRICULTITRr!. 

mine  what  is  the  proper  lime  for  his  lambs  to  come.  For 
early  market,  or  when  there  are  few  sheep,  and  those  well 
looked  after,  they  may  come  while  the  ewes  are  in  the  yards, 
and  provision  can  be  made  for  the  progeny,  by  placing  such 
as  are  heavy,  in  warm  stalls.  Both  (he  dam  and  young  thus 
receive  a  closer  attention  than  they  would  in  the  field ;  and 
after  a  weeks  housing  in  severe  weather,  the  lamb  may  be 
turned  out  into  the  dry  yard,  where  he  will  suff(>r  no  more, 
apparently,  than  the  full  grown  sheep.  But  with  large  flocks, 
early  lambing  is  attended  with  much  trouble,  and  it  is  gene- 
rally avoided,  by  deferring  it  till  the  weather  has  become 
more  settled,  and  a  full  bite  of  grass  will  afford  the  dam  a 
plentiful  supply  of  milk.  Yet  in  this  case,  the  young  sheep 
must  daily  be  under  the  eye  of  the  shepherd,  who  should  see 
that  they  are  well  supplied  with  food,  and  especially  that  they 
are  brought  under  cover  in  severe  or  stormy  weather. 

A  ram  will  serve  from  10  to  100  ewes  in  a  season,  accord- 
ing to  his  age,  health,  feed,  and  management.  A  South 
Down  or  T-.ong  Wooled  lamb  of  7  or  8  months,  is  sometimes 
used,  and  when  this  is  done,  he  should  be  well  fed,  and  al- 
lowed to  run  only  with  a  ver}*  few  ewes.  If  full  grown  rams 
are  turned  info  a  lean  pasture  to  remain  with  the  ewes,  not 
less  than  four  should  be  put  in  for  every  hundred.  But  if  a 
well-fed  ram,  in  full  health  and  vigor,  is  kept  up,  and  led  out 
to  the  ewe  as  she  comes  into  heat,  and  allowed  to  serve  her 
once  only,  he  will  suffice  for  one  hundred,  without  injury  to 
himself  or  progeny.  For  this  purpose,  the  ram  should  be 
prepared,  not  by  being  fat,  for  this,  neither  he  nor  the  ewe 
should  ever  be  ;  but  by  being  fed  with  grain  for  a  short  time 
before  and  during  the  continuance  of  the  season.  The  ewes 
are  more  likely  to  come  quickly  into  heat,  and  prove  prolific, 
if  lightly  ted  with  stinudating  food  at  the  time.  It  is  reason- 
aWy  enough  conjectured,  that  if  procreation,  and  the  first 
period  of  ge.;tation  takes  place  in  cold  weather,  the  fcjetus  will 
subsequently  be  fitted  for  the  climate  which  rules  during  the 
early  stages  of  its  existence.  If  this  be  so,  and  it  is  certainly 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  nature,  fine  wooled  sheep  art) 
most  likely  to  maintain  their  excellence,  by  deferring  the 
connexion  of  the  male,  till  the  commencement  of  cold  weather; 
and  in  the  northern  states,  this  is  done  about  the  first  of  De- 
cember, which  brings  the  yeaning  time  in  the  last  of  April 
or  first  of  May,  when  the  early  grass  will  afl<Drd  a  good  qual. 
ity  of  feed. 


SHEEP.  343 

Winter  Management  and  Food. — Sheep  should  be 
brought  into  winter  quarters  soon  after  the  severe  frosts  oc- 
cur, as  these  diminish  the  feed,  and  materially  impair  its  nu- 
tritious qualities.  They  ought  also  to  be  removed  from  the 
grass  lands  before  they  beco  e  permanently  soilened  by  the 
rains,  as  thoy  will  injuriously  affect  their  comfort  and  health  ; 
and  it  is  equally  objectionable  from  their  poaching  the  sod. 
If  the  number  be  large  when  brought  to  the  yards,  they  must 
be  carefully  divided  into  flocks  of  50  to  100,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  yards  and  sheds.  The  young  and  feeble  must  be 
separated  from  the  others,  and  the  ailing  ones  placed  by  them- 
selves ;  and  that  no  one  may  suffer  from  the  others,  all  should 
be  classed  as  uniformly  as  possible  as  to  strength.  The 
yards  must  be  dry,  well  supplied  with  a  trough  of  fresh  water, 
and  with  comfortable  sheds  to  which  they  can  retire  when 
they  choose. 

Shelters  in  northern  climates  are  indispenable  to  profita- 
ble sheep-raising,  and  in  every  latitude  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  they  would  be  advantageous.  There  is  policy  as 
well  as  humanity  in  the  practice.  An  animal  eats  much  less 
when  thus  protected  ;  he  is  more  thrifty?  less  liable  to  disease, 
and  his  manure  is  richer  and  more  abundant.  The  feeding 
may  be  done  in  the  open  yard  in  clear  weather,  and  under 
cover  in  severe  storms.  The  shelters  for  sheep  are  variously 
constructed,  to  suit  the  taste  or  circumstances  of  the  flock- 
master.  A  sheep-barn  built  upon  a  side  hill  will  afford  two 
floors;  one  underneath,  surrounded  by  three  sides  of  wall  and 
opening  to  the  south,  with  sliding  or  swinging  doors  to  guard 
against  storms  ;  and  another  overhead,  if  the  floors  are  made 
perfectly  tight,  with  gutters  to  carry  olf  the  urine  ;  and  suffi- 
cient storage  for  the  fodder  may  be  made  by  scaffolds.  Or 
they  may  be  constructed  with  12  or  15  feet  posts  on  level 
ground,  allowing  them  to  occupy  the  lower  part,  with  the  fod- 
der stored  above.  In  all  cases  however,  thorough  veniilalicm 
should  he  provided,  for  of  the  tAvo  evils  of  exposure  to  cold 
or  too  great  privation  of  air,  the  former  is  to  be  preferred. 
Sheep  cannot  long  endure  c'ose  confinement  without  injury. 
In  ail  ordinary  weather,  a  shed  closely  boarded  on  three  sides, 
with  a  close  ro<'f,  is  sufficient  protection,  especially  if  the 
open  side  is  shielded  from  bleak  winds,  or  leads  into  a  well 
enclosed  yard.  If  the  apartment  above  is  used  for  storage, 
the  floors  should  be  made  tight,  that  no  hay,  chaff  or  dust  can 
fall  upon  the  fleece. 


344  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

Racks  or  mangers  are  indispensable  to  economical  feed- 
ing. If  the  hay  is  fed  on  the  ground,  the  leaves  and  seeds, 
the  most  valuable  part  of  the  fodder,  are  almost  wholly  lost, 
and  when  wet,  the  sheep  in  their  restlessness  while  feeding, 
will  tread  much  of  it  into  the  mud.  To  make  an  economical 
box  or  rack,  take  6  light  pieces  of  scantling,  say  3  inches 
square,  one  for  each  corner,  and  one  for  the  centre  of  each 
side.  Boards  of  pine  or  hemlock,  12  or  15  feet  long  and  12 
or  14  inches  wide,  may  then  be  nailed  on  to  the  bottom  of  the 
posts  for  the  sides,  which  are  separated  by  similar  boards  at 
the  ends,  2h  feet  long.  Boards  12  inches  wide,  raised  above 
the  lower  ones  by  a  space  of  9  to  12  inches,  are  nailed  on  the 
sides  and  ends,  which  completes  the  rack.  The  edges  of  the 
opening  should  be  made  perfectly  smooth  to  prevent  chafing 
the  wool.  The  largest  dimensions  above  given  are  suitable 
for  the  large  breeds,  and  the  smallest  for  the  Saxon,  and  still 
smaller  are  proper  for  their  lambs.  These  should  be  set  on 
dry  ground,  or  under  the  sheds,  and  they  can  easily  be  remo- 
ved wherever  necessary.  Some  prefer  the  racks  made  with 
slats,  or  smooth,  upright  sticks,  in  the  form  of  the  usual  horse 
rack.  There  is  no  objection  to  this,  but  it  should  always  be 
accompanied  by  a  board  trough  afiixed  to  the  bottom,  to  catch 
the  fine  hay  which  falls  in  feeding.  These  may  be  attached 
to  the  side  of  a  building,  or  used  double.  A  small  lamb  re- 
quires 15  inches  of  space  and  a  large  sheep  2  feet,  for  quiet, 
comfortable  feeding,  and  at  least  this  amount  of  room  should 
be  provided  around  the  racks  for  every  sheep. 

Troughs  may  be  variously  constructed.  The  most  econo- 
mical are  made  with  two  boards  of  any  convenient  length,  10 
to  12  inches  wide.  Nail  the  lower  side  of  one  upon  the  edge 
of  the  other,  fastening  botli  into  a  two  or  three  inch  plank, 
15  inches  long  and  a  foot  wide,  notched  in  its  upper  edge  in 
tile  form  required. 

Food. — 'J'here  is  no  better  food  for  sheep  than  ripe,  sound, 
timothy  hay,  though  the  clovers  and  nearly  all  tiie  cultivated 
grasses  may  be  advantageously  fed.  Bean  and  pea  straw 
are  valuable,  and  especially  the  former,  which  if  properly 
cured,  they  prefer  to  the  best  hay ;  and  it  is  well  adaptei* 
to  the  production  of  wool.  All  the  other  straws  furnish  a 
good  food,  and  sheej)  will  tlirive  on  them  without  hay  when 
ied  with  roots  or  grain.  Roots  ought  to  be  given  them  occa- 
sionally for  a  change,  and  especially  tj^the  ewes  after  lamb, 
ing,  if  this  occurs  before  putting  them  on  to  fresh  pasture. 
They  keep  the  stomach  properly  distended,  the  appetite  and 


SHEEP.  345 

general  health  good,  and  they  render  their  winter  forage 
nearly  equal  to  their  summer  feed.  Much  grain  is  not  suited 
to  store-sheop.  It  is  too  rich,  and  should  be  given  sparingly 
except  to  the  lambs,  the  old  ewes  or  feeble  sheep,  or  to  restore 
the  rams  after  hard  service.  For  the  above  purposes,  oats 
are  the  best ;  and  if  any  other  grain,  beans  or  peas  are  given, 
it  should  be  in  small  quantities.  When  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  hay  and  roots,  grain  may  l)e  iised  with  straw.  But  the 
tiock  ought  to  be  so  fed  as  receive  the  same  amount  of  nour- 
ishment throughout  every  part  of  the  year.  The  evenness 
and  value  of  the  fleece  depends  much  upon  this.  When  the 
amount  of  nutrition  is  great,  the  wool  secreting  organs  are 
distended,  and  the  fibre  becomes  enlarged ;  when  limited, 
they  necessarily  contract  and  the  fibre  is  small.  This  pro- 
duces a  want  of  trueness,  which  the  experienced  stapler  readily 
detects,  and  does  not  fail  to  estimate  against  the  value  of  the 
fleece.  Sheep  ought  jto  have  a  full  supply  of  salt,  and  if 
accessible,  sulphur,  ashes,  tar  and  clay  would  frequently 
be  nibbled  by  them  when  their  stomach  required  either.  Pine 
or  hemlock  bouglis  are  a  good  substitute  for  tar,  and  afford  a 
most  healthful  change  in  the  winter-food  of  sheep.  Entire 
cleanliness  and  dryness  are  also  essential  to  the  health  of  the 
flock.  The  smaller  sizes  of  the  Saxon  may  be  well  sustained 
on  two  pounds  of  hay,  but  larger  sheep  will  consume  from 
three  and  a  half  to  four,  or  even  five  pounds  per  day.  Sheep 
like  all  other  animals  when  exposed  to  cold,  will  consume 
much  more  than  if  well  protected,  or  than  during  a  warmer 
season. 

The  care  of  the  ewes  mlh  young,  is  an  important  consider- 
ation, as  the  lamb  is  sometimes  the  only  profit  yielded  by  the 
flock,  for  when  fodder  is  high  or  wool  low,  the  fleece  will 
barely  pay  for  the  food  and  attention.  Pregnant  ewes 
require  the  same  food  as  at  all  other  times,  but  caution  is 
necessary  to  prevent  injury  or  abortion,  which  is  often  the 
result  of  excessive  fat,  feebleness  or  disease.  The  first  may 
be  remedied  by  blood-letting  and  spare  diet,  and  both  the  last 
by  restored  health  and  generous  fotid.  Sudden  fright,  as  from 
dogs  or  strange  objects  ;  long  or  severe  journeys  ;  great  exer- 
tions ;  unwholesome  food ;  blows  in  the  region  of  the  foetus, 
and  some  other  causes  produce  abortion. 

Yeaning, — Most  flocks  are  turned   into  the  pasture  before 

yeaning  time,  and  the  ewe  is  then  left  to  nature,  which  is  a 

good   practice  if  she  is  healthy  and  the  weather  good.     But 

a  larger  number^of  lambs  will  be  reared  by  a  careful  over- 

O* 


346  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE. 

sight  of  the  ewes  and  the  use  of  proper  precautions.  As  their 
time  approaches,  which  may  be  known  by  the  springing  of  the 
udder  and  the  enlargement  of  the  natural  parts,  they  should 
be  put  by  themselves  at  night,  in  a  warm  stable  or  with  others 
in  the  same  condition,  and  well  looked  after,  late  and  early  in 
the  day.  They  seldom  need  any  assistance,  nor  should  any 
be  rendered,  except  in  case  of  wrong  presentation,  or  feeble- 
ness in  expelling  the  foetus.  In  the  former  case,  the  shep- 
herd may  apply  his  thumb  and  finger  after  oiling,  and  push 
back  the  young,  and  assist  in  gently  turning  it  till  the  nose 
and  fore-feet  appear  ;  and  for  the  latter,  only  the  slightest 
aid  should  be  rendered,  and  that  to  help  the  throes  of  the 
dam. 

Management  of  lambs.. — When  lambing  in  the  field, 
only  a  few  should  be  together,  as  the  young  sometimes  get 
changed,  and  the  dams  refuse  to  own  them.  This  dificulty 
is  generally  obviated  by  holding  the^ewe  till  the  lamb  has 
sucked  two  or  three  times  ;  or  they  may  be  shut  up  together, 
and  the  lamb  rubbed  with  a  little  fine  salt.  The  lamb  does 
not  require  nourishment  for  some  hours  ;  but  if  the  dam  re- 
fuse to  lick  it  as  soon  as  it  appears,  it  must  bccarofully  wiped 
dry.  If  the  weather  be  cold  and  the  lamb  is  dropped  in  the 
field,  the  shepherd  should  be  furnished  with  large  pockets 
or  a  well-lined  basket,  in  which  it  must  be  placed  till  the 
ewe  is  brought  to  the  shed.  After  the  first  day  or  two,  the 
udders  ought  to  be  completely  drained  of  their  milk  by  the 
hand,  so  as  to  prevent  swollen  or  caked  bag.  I»  case  of  de- 
ficiency of  milk,  the  lamb  maybe  supplied  from  a  new-milch 
cow,  by  means  of  a  sucking-bottle  with  an  air  rent,  or  it  may 
draw  a  part  of  its  nourishment  fi'om  another  ewe,  which 
can  be  held  while  the  lamb  is  sucking.  It  is  sometime 
necessary  to  substitute  a  foster-mother,  in  which  case,  the 
6we  may  be  made  to  own  the  lamb,  by  milking  from  her 
udder  over  the  lamb  and  under  his  tail,  rubbing  it  on  well;  or 
rub  the  adopted  lamb  with  the  entrails  and  contents  of  the 
stomach  of  the  dead  lamb,  or  cover  it  with  the  skin.  If  the 
ewe  proves  a  bad  nurse,  or  it  is  desirable  to  bring  the  lambs 
forward  rapidly,  they  may  be  early  tnught  to  eat  boiled  oats  0r 
other  grain,  cabbage,  roots  and  tender  hay.  Lambs  should 
be  well  fed,  as  it  is  important  to  produce  size,  constitution  and 
perfection  of  form.  The  ewes  and  their  young  ought  to  be 
divided  into  small  flocks,  and  have  a  frequent  change  of 
pasture.  Some  careful  shephards  adopt  the  plan  of  confin- 
ing their  lambs,  and  allow  them  to  suck  two  or  thee  times  a 


SHEEP.  347 

day,  by  which  they  suffer  no  fatigue  and  thrive  much  faster. 
But  this  is  troublesome  and  injurious,  as  the  exercise  is  essen- 
tial to  the  health  and  constitution  of  the  lamb  intended  for 
rearing.  It  is  admissible  only  when  they  are  wanted  for  an 
early  market,  and  by  those  who  keep  sheep  for  this  purpose,  it 
is  a  common  practice. 

Castrating  and  docking  lamhs — After  selecting  enough  of 
the   choicest   rams  for  stock  getters,  the  castrating  may  be 
performed  at  any  time  between  two  and  six  weeks  old,  when 
the  lamb  is  in  good  health.     A  cool  day  should  be  chosen,  or 
if  warm,  it  must  be  done  early  in  the  morning.     The  best 
metiiod  is  for  one  person  to  hold  the  lamb  firmly  between  his 
legs,  on  an  inclined  plank  upon  which  he  rests,  while  another 
with  a  sliarp  knife,  cuts  ofl^  about  two  thirds  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  scrotum.     The   testicles  a,re   then  drawn  out  till  the 
spermatic  cord  is  reached,  which  is  divided  by  the  thumlj  nail, 
or  it  is  pulled  out  and  cut  with  a  sharp  knife.     It  is  sometimes 
done  by  simply  opening  the  scrotum,  when  the   testicles  and 
spermatic  cord  are  jerked  out.     The  wound  should  then  be 
rinsed  with  cold  water,  after  which  apply  lard.     The   opera- 
tion of  docking,  is  by  many  deferred  till  a  late  period,  from 
apprehension  of  too   much  loss  of  blood  ;  but  if  the  weather 
be  favorable   and  the  lamb  in  good  condition,  it  maybe  per- 
formed at  this  time  with  the  least  trouble  and  without  injury. 
The  tail  should  be  laid  upon  the  plank,  the   person  holding 
him  in  the  same  position  as  before.     With  one  hand  he  draws 
the  skin  towards  the  body,  while  the  other  person  with  a  two- 
inch  chisel  and   mallet,  strikes  it  off  at  a  blow  between  the 
bone  joints,  leaving  it  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  long.     The 
skin  immediately  slips  back  over  the  wound  and  is  soon  healed. 
Ewe  lambs  should  l>e  docked  closer  than  the  rams.     To  pre- 
vent flies  and  maggots,  and  assist  in  healing,  it  is  well  to  apply 
an  ointment  composed  of  lard  and  tar,  in  the  proportions  of 
four  pounds  of  the  former  to  one  quart  of  the  latter.     This  is 
also  a  good  application  for  the  scrotum.     The  lambs  should 
be  carefully  protected  from  cold  and  wet  till  they  are  perfectly 
well. 

Tagging  or  claiiing,  is  the  removal  of  such  wool  as  is  lia- 
ble to  get  fouled  when  the  sheep  are  turned  on  to  the  fresh 
pastures,  and  of  course  it  should  be  done  just  before  leaving 
their  winter  quarters.  It  is  most  easily  accomplished  by 
placing  the  animal  on  a  low  table,  and  then  holding  it  as  in 
shearing,  till  the  operation  is  performed.  All  the  wool  near 
the  extremity  of  the  sheath  and  the  scrotum  of  the  males, 


348  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

from  the  udder  of  the  ewes,  and  from  the  dock,  and  below  it, 
the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  from  the  legs  of  the  sheep,  should 
be  removed. 

Summer  Management. — As  soon  as  the  warm  weather 
approaches  and  the  grass  appears,  sheep  become  restive  and 
impatient  fur  the  pasture.  This  instinct  should  be  repressed 
till  the  ground  has  become  thoroughly  dry,  and  the  grass  has 
acquired  substance.  They  ought  moreover,  to  be  provided 
for  the  change  of  food,  by  the  daily  use  of  roots  for  a  few 
days  before  turning  out.  It  would  also  check  the  tendency 
to  excessive  purging,  which  is  induced  by  the  first  spring 
feed,  if  they  were  housed  at  night,  and  fed  for  the  first  few 
days,  with  a  little  sound,  sweet  hay.  They  must  be  provided 
with  pure  water,  salt,  <fec.  as  in  winter,  for  though  they  may 
sometimes  do  tolerably  well  without  either,  yet  thrift  and 
freedom  from  disease  are  cheaply  secured  by  this  slight 
attention.  Dry,  sweet  pastures,  and  such  as  abound  in  aro- 
matic and  bitter  plants,  are  best  suited  for  sheep-walks.  No 
animal  with  the  exception  of  the  goat,  crops  so  great  a  vari- 
ety of  plants.  They  eat  many  which  are  rejected  by  the 
horse  and  the  ox,  and  which  are  even  essential  to  tlieir  own 
wants.  In  this  respect,  they  are  valuable  assistants  to  the 
husbandman,  as  they  feed  greedily  on  wild  mustard,  burdocks, 
thistles,  marsh-mallows,  milk- weed  and  various  other  offend- 
ing plants;  and  the  Merino  exceeds  the  more  recent  breeds 
in  the  variety  of  his  selections.  Many  prepare  artificial 
pastures  for  their  flocks.  This  may  be  done  with  a  number 
of  plants.  Winter  rye  or  wheat  sown  early  in  the  season, 
may  be  fed  ofi'in  tiie  fall  without  injury  to  the  crop  ;  and  in 
the  following  spring  the  rye  may  be  pastured  till  the  stalks 
shoot  up  and  begin  to  form  a  head.  This  affords  an  early 
and  nutritious  food.  Corn  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  thickly 
indrills,  and  either  fed  oifin  the  fields,  or  cut  and  carried  to 
the  sheep  in  tlieir  folds.  An  experiment  made  with  white 
mustard  for  feeding  sheep,  is  detailed  on  page  216,  which 
shows  it  to  be  a  valuable  crop  for  this  purpose.  To  give 
sheep  suflicient  variety,  it  would  be  better  to  divide  their, 
range  into  smaller  ones,  and  change  them  as  often  at  least,' 
as  once  a  week.  They  seek  a  favorite  resting  place,  on  a 
dry,  elevated  part  of  the  field,  which  soon  becomes  soiled.  By 
removing  them  from  this  for  a  few  days,  rains  will  cleanse, 
or  the  sun  dry  it,  so  as  again  to  make  it  suitable  for  them. 
More  sheep  may  be  kept,  and  in  better  condition  where  this 


SHEEP.  349 

practice  is  adopted  than  where  they  are  confined  to  the  same 
pasture. 

Washing  Sheep. — In  most  of  that  portion  of  the  Union 
north  of  40%  the  washing  is  performed  from  the  middle  of 
May  till  the  first  of  June,  according  to  the  season  and  cli- 
mate. When  the  streams  are  liard^  which  frequently  is  the 
case  in  lime-slone  regions,  it  is  better  to  do  this  immediately 
after  an  abundant  rain,  by  which  the  lime  derived  from  the 
springs  is  proportionally  lessened.  The  practice  of  a  large 
majority  of  our  farmers,  is  to  drive  their  sheep  to  the  wash- 
ing ground,  early  in  the  morning  of  a  warm  day,  leav- 
ing the  lambs  behind.  The  sheep  are  confined  on  the 
bank  of  the  stream  by  a  temporary  enclosure,  from  which 
they  are  taken,  and  if  not  too  heavy,  are  carried  into  water 
sufficiently  deep  to  prevent  their  touching  bottom.  They 
are  then  washed  by  gently  squeezing  the  fleece  with  the 
hands,  after  which  they  are  led  ashore,  and  as  much  of  the 
water  pressed  out  as  possible  before  letting  them  go,  as  the 
great  weight  retained  in  the  wool,  frequently  staggers  and 
throws  them  down.  A  good  practice  is  to  lead  the  she€f)  into 
the  water  and  saturate  the  fleece,  after  which  they  are  taken 
ashore.  When  they  commence  steaming,  they  are  again  led 
into  the  water,  and  washed  clean.  This  insures  thorough 
cleansing  where  the  water  is  pure.  Others  make  use  of 
a  boat,  one  end  of  which  rests  on  a  bold  shore  and  the  other 
is  in  deep  water.  The  operator  stands  in  the  boat  and 
plunges  the  animal  over  the  side  where  the  washing  is  per- 
formed ;  or  it  is  sometimes  done  by  sinking  a  tight  hogshead 
or  large  box  in  the  water,  with  heavy  weights,  in  which  a 
man  stands,  and  the  sheep  are  brought  or  led  to  and  from 
him  by  another  person  who  walks  on  a  platform  reaching 
from  the  bank  to  the  hogshead.  Either  of  the  last  methods 
obviates  the  necessity  of  standing  for  a  long  time  in  water, 
by  which  colds,  rheumatism,  &c.  are  frequently  contracted. 
In  parts  of  Germany  and  sometimes  in  this  country,  sheep 
are  forced  to  swim  across  a  narrow  stream  several  times,  by 
which  the  fleece  is  tolerably  cleaned,  if  all  the  water  be 
pressed  out  when  they  get  to  the  land.  The  yolk  bping  a 
saponaceous  compound,  not  an  oily  matter  as  is  generally 
supposed,  it  readily  combines  with  the  water  and  passes  out 
of  the  wool.  An  excellent  practice  when  streams  are  not 
convenient,  is  to  lead  a  small  ripple  of  soft  water  into  a  tub. 
To  this  a  little  soap  is  added,  after  which  the  sheep  are  im- 
mersed and  thoroughly  cleansed.     Perfect  whiteness  and 


350  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

purity  of  the  fleece  is  readily  obtained  afterwards,  by  throw- 
ing  over  the  sheep  a  jet  of  water.  This  practice  has  a  good 
eliect,  in  preventing  or  removing  cutaneous  disorders  and 
destroying  ticits  or  other  vermin.  Many  judicious  farmers 
object  to  washing  sheep,  from  its  tendency  to  produce  colds 
and  catarrhal  affections,  to  which  sheep  are  particularly  sub- 
ject ;  but  it  cannot  well  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  wool  is 
always  more  saleable,  and  if  carefully  done,  need  not  be 
attended  with  injury.  Warm  settled  weather  however,  is 
indispensable  to  washing  with  safety  to  the  general  health  of 
the  sheep. 

^Shearing. — The  manner  of  shearing  varies  with  almost 
every  district ;  but  as  this  is  an  art  to  be  acquired  under  a 
skilful  master,  we  shall  omit  particular  details  on  the  subject. 
First  clip  all  the  tags  and  filth,  if  any  remains  or  has  been 
accumulated  after  the  tagging  in  the  spring ;  then  take  off 
the  fleece  and  spread  it  with  the  outside  uppermost  on  a  smooth 
bench  or  table,  and  push  the  wool  carefully  together,  to  render 
it  more  compact;  double  the  sides  over  to  the  centre;  throw 
the  clean  loose  locks  into  the  middle,  and  roll  together  from 
each  eiid.     This  makes  a  smooth,  dense  package,  which  is 
secured  by  passing  a  stout  twine  one  or  more  times  around 
the  sides  and  ends.    All  the  wool  from  the  extremities  should 
be  closely  sheared  and  saved  by  itself,  before  dismissing  the 
the  sheep,  but  never  put  up  with  choice  fleeces.     If  wounds 
are  made^  which  is  sometimes  the  case  with  unskilful  opera- 
tors, a  mixture  of  tar  and  grease  ought  to  be  applied.     After 
shearing,  such  horns  and  hoofs  as  are  likely  to  be  trouble- 
some, should  be  sawed  and  pared.     The  branding  or  mark- 
ing is  essential  to  distinguish  them  from  other  flocks,  and 
this  is  done  on  the  shoulder,  side  or  buttock.     A  brush  or 
marking  iron  is  used  for  this  purpose,  with  paint  made  of 
la^np  black,   to  which  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine  is  flrst 
added,  and  then  diluted  with  linseed  or  lard  oil.     If  the  wea- 
ther be  cool,   and  esj)ecially  if  severe  storms  occur  after 
washing  or  shearing,  the  flock  should  be  housed.     If  sultry, 
they  should  have  a  cool,  shady  retreat,  where  they  will  be 
shielded  from  the  flies  and  the  heat.     Hlistersand  permanent 
injury  to  the  skin  and  fleece,  are  frequently  the  result  of  such 
exposure.     Shade-trees  in  their  pastures,  contribute  much  to 
the  comfort  of  sheep,  when  exposed  to  a  blazing  sun.     A 
close  examination  of  the  skin,  should  be  made  at  shearing, 
for  the  detection  of  disease  or  vermin.     For  remedies,  see 
article  diseases.    Smearing  or  salving  sheep,  is  a  custom 


SUEEF.  351 

little   practised  in   this    country.     For  cold,  elevated  and 
exposed  situations,  it  may  be  necessary,  and  it  is  generally 
adopted  in  Scotland.     The   object  i3  to  prevent   cutaneous 
diseases   and  vermin,   and  furnish   additional    warmth  and 
protection   to   the  fleeces  of  such  breeds  as  are  deficient  in 
yolk.     It  is  Visually  performed  the   latter  part  of  October, 
but   is   sometimes  done  immediately  after  shearing.     The 
mixture  or  salve  consists  of  tar  and  butter  or  grease,  in  dif- 
ferent proportions  ;   1  gall,  of  the  former  to  12,  or  some- 
times 20  lbs.   of   the    latter ;  the   greater  proportion  of  tar 
being  required  for  the  younger  sheep,  or  for  more  exposed 
situations.     The  grease  is  melted  over  the  fire,  and  the  tar 
stirred  in,  and  when  sufficiently  cool,   it  is   applied    to  the 
whole  body  of  the  sheep,  by  carefully  parting  the  wool  and 
rubbing  it  on  the  skin  with  the  fingers.     The  above  quan- 
tity is  sufficient  for  30  or  50  sheep,  according  to  their  size 
and  the   character  of  the  wool.     This  application   is   not 
required    for   fine-wooled   sheep,    whose   fleeces  are  more 
appropriately  protected  by  a  natural  secretion  of  yolk  ;  and 
it  is  better  to  omit  it  in  all  cases,  where  the  health  and  com- 
fort of  the  animal  do  not  render  it  absolutely  essential.     Mr. 
Stewart,  an  experienced  Scotch  shepherd,  uses  only  tallow 
and  train    oil  mixed  in  equal  proportions.     He  asserts  that 
the  improvement  in  the  growth  and  quality  of  the  wool  is  at 
least  one-third,  and  it  materially  benefits  the  condition  of  the 
sbeep, 

Weaning. — The  lambs  may  be  weaned  from  3i  to  4 
months  old.  They  should  be  put  upon  rich,  sweet  feed,  but 
not  too  luxuriant ;  while  the  dams  are  turned  upon  the 
poorest,  and  so  remote  from  their  young,  as  to  be  out  of  sight 
and  hearing.  The  ewes  ought  to  he  carefully  examined 
after  a  day  or  two,  and  if  necessary,  the  milk  removed  with 
the  hand.  If  it  continues  to  accumulate,  the  ewe  may  be  fed 
on  hay  for  a  few  days.  When  thoroughly  dried  ofl^,  they 
should  have  the  best  fare  to  recover  condition  for  subsequent 
breeding  and  wintering.  The  fall  is  a  critical  period  to  lose 
flesh,  either  for  sheep  or  lambs  ;  and  if  any  are  found  defi- 
cient, they  should  be  at  once  provided  for  by  extra  feed  and 
attention.  If  cold  weather  overtakes  them  poor  or  in  ill 
health,  they  will  scarcely  outlive  it;  or  if  by  chance  they 
survive,  their  emaciated  carcass,  impaired  constitution,  and 
scant  fleece  will  illy  repay  the  food  and  attention  they  will 
have  cost. 


352  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

The  time  for  taking  sheep  from  the  pastures  must  depend  on 
the  state  of  the  weather  and  food.  Severe  frosts  destroy 
much  of  the  nutriment  in  the  grasses,  and  they  soon  after 
cease  to  afford  adequate  nourishment.  Long  exposure  to 
cold  storms  upon  such  lands,  with  such  food  to  sustain  them, 
will  rapidly  reduce  their  condition.  The  only  fafe  rule  is  to 
transfer  them  to  their  winter  quarters  the  first  day  they  cease 
to  thrive  abroad.  Drafting  the  flock  for  the  purpose  of  rid- 
ding it  of  the  supernumeraries,  should  be  done  at  an  earlier 
day.  Such  of  the  wethers  as  have  attained  their  prime,  and 
those  ewes  that  have  passed  it,  ought  to  be  withdrawn  soon 
after  shearing,  and  provided  with  the  best  feed,  and  rapidly 
fitted  for  the  shambles.  If  they  have  been  properly  pushed 
on  grass,  they  will  be  in  good  flesh  by  the  time  they  are  taken 
from  it,  and  if  not  intended  for  stall-feeding,  the  sooner  they 
are  then  disposed  of  the  better.  Stallfeeding  will  be  lost  on 
an  ill-shaped,  unthrifty  beast.  The  perfection  of  form  and 
health,  and  the  uniform  good  condition  which  characterize 
the  thrifty  one,  indicate  too  plainly  to  be  misunderstood,  those 
which  will  best  repay  the  care  of  their  owner.  The  selection 
of  any  indifferent  animal  for  stall-fattening,  will  inevitably  be 
attended  with  loss,  and  they  had  better  be  at  once  disposed 
of  when  first  brought  from  the  pasture,  for  the  most  they  will 
bring. 

Management  of  sheep  for  the  Prairies. — When  des- 
tined for  the  prairies,  they  ought  to  commence  the  journey  as 
early  after  shearing  as  possible.  They  are  then  disencum- 
bered of  their  fleece,  and  do  not  catch  and  retain  as  much 
dust  as  M'hen  driven  later.  Feed  is  also  generally  better, 
and  the  roads  are  dry  and  hard.  Young  and  healthy  sheep 
should  be  selected,  with  early  lambs  ;  or  if  the  latter  are  too 
young,  and  the  distance  great,  they  should  be  left  and  the 
ewes  dried  off.  A  large  wagon  ought  to  accompany  the  flock, 
to  carry  such  as  occasionally  give  out;  or  they  may  be  dis- 
poned of  whenever  they  become  enfeebled.  With  good  care, 
a  liardy  flock  may  be  driven  at  the  rate  of  12  or  14  miles  a 
day.  Constant  watchftilness  is  requisite  to  keep  them  healthy^ 
and  in  good  plight.  One  half  the  expense  of  driving  may  be  *'' 
saved  by  the  use  of  well-trained  shepherd-dogs.  When  arri- 
ved at  their  destination,  they  must  be  thoroughly  washed,  to 
free  them  from  all  dirt,  and  closely  examined  as  to  any  dis- 
eases they  may  have  contracted,  which  if  discovered,  should 
be  promptly  removed.  A  variety  of  suitable  food  and  good 
shelter  must  be  provided,  for  the  autumn,  winter,  and  spring 


SHEEP.  353 

ensuing,  and  every  necessary  attention  given  them.  This 
would  be  necessary  if  indigenous  to  the  country  ;  how  much 
more  so,  when  they  have  just  undergone  a  campaign,  to  which 
neither  they  nor  tlieir  race  have  been  accustomed.  *' 

Sheep  cannot  be  kept  on  the  prairies  without  much  care, 
artificial  food,  and  proper  attention ;  and  in  a  false  system  of 
economy,  hitherto  attempted  by  many,  losses  have  occurred 
from  disease  and  mortality  in  the  flocks,  sufficient  to  have 
made  ample  provision  for  the  comfort  and  security  of  twice 
the  number  saved.  More  especially  do  they  require  proper 
food  and  attention,  after  the  first  severe  frosts  set  in,  which 
wither  and  kill  the  natural  grasses.  By  nibbling  at  theyb^, 
(the  frost  bitten,  dead  grass,)  they  are  inevitably  subject  to 
constipation,  which  a  bountiful  supply  of  roots,  sulphur,  &c., 
are  alone  sufficient  to  remove.  Roots,  grain,  and  good  hay; 
straw,  or  corn-stalks,  pea  or  bean-vines,  are  essential  to  the 
preservation  of  their  health  and  thrifl  during  the  winter,  any 
where  north  of  40°.  In  summer,  the  natural  herbage  is  suffi- 
cient to  sustain  them  in  fine  condition,  till  they  shall  have  ac- 
quired a  denser  population  of  animals,  when  it  will  be  found 
necessary  to  stock  their  meadows  with  the  best  varieties  of 
artificial  grasses. 

The  prairies  seem  adapted  to  the  usual  varieties  of  sheej) 
introduced  into  the  United  States  ;  and  of  such  are  the  flocks 
made  up,  according  to  the  taste  or  judgment  of  the  owners. 
Shepherd  dogs  are  invaluable  to  the  owners  of  flocks,  both  as 
preventives  against  the  small  prairie  wolf,  which  prowls 
around  the  flock,  but  which  are  rapidly  thinning  oft"  by  the 
settlers ;  and  also  as  assistants  to  the  shepherds  in  driving 
and  herding  their  flocks  on  the  open  ground. 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 

The  dry  and  healthful  climate,  the  rolling  surface,  and  the 
sweet  and  varied  herbage  which  generally  prevail  in  the 
United  States,  insure  perfect  health  to  an  originally  sound 
and  well-selected  flock,  unless  peculiarly  exposed  to  disease. 
No  country  is  better  suited  to  sheep,  than  most  of  the  northern 
and  some  of  the  southern  parts  of  our  own.  In  Europe,  and 
especially  in  England,  where  the  system  of  management  is 
necessarily,  in  the  highest  degree  artificial,  consisting  fre- 
quently  in  early  and  continued  forcing  the  system,  folding  on 
wet,  ploughed  grounds,  and  the  excessive  use  of  that  watery 
food,  the  Swedes  turnip,  there  are  numerous  and  fatal  diseases. 
Hence  the  long  list  which  lumbers  the  pages  of  foreign  wri- 


354  AMERICAN    AGRICTTLTTTRE. 

ters  on  sheep.  The  most  destructive  of  these  are  the  rot,  and 
epidemics,  which  are  scarcely  known  in  America,  except  by 
gpport.  The  diseases  incident  to  our  flocks,  may  generally 
be  considered  as  casualties,  rather  than  as  inbred,  or  neces- 
sarily arising  from  the  quality  of  food,  or  from  local  causes. 
It  may  be  safely  asserted,  that  with  a  dry,  rolling  pasture, 
well  stocked  with  varied  and  nutritious  herbage,  a  clear,  run- 
ning stream,  sufficient  shade  and  protection  against  severe 
storms,  a  constant  supply  of  salt,  tar,  and  sulphur  in  summer; 
good  hay,  and  sometimes  roots,  with  ample  shelters  in  winter ; 
that  young  sheep,  originally  sound  and  healthy,  will  seldom 
or  never  get  diseased  on  American  soil.  The  few  which  it 
may  be  necessary  here  to  mention,  will  be  treated  in  the  sim- 
plest manner.  Remedies  of  general  application,  to  be  admi- 
nistered,  often  by  the  unskilful  and  ignorant,  must  neither  be 
elaborate  or  complicated  ;  and  if  expensive,  the  lives  of  most 
sheep  would  be  dearly  purchased  by  their  application.  A 
sheep  which  the  owner  has  reared  or  purchased  at  the  ordi- 
nary price,  is  th:;  only  domestic  animal  which  can  die  without 
material  loss  to  its  owner.  The  wool  and  pelt  will  in  most 
instances  repay  its  cost,  while  the  carcasses  of  other  animals 
will  be  worthless  except  for  manure.  The  loss  of  sheep  from 
occasional  disease,  will  leave  the  farmer's  pocket  in  a  very 
different  condition,  from  the  loss  of  an  equal  value  in  horses 
or  cattle.  Yet  humanity  equally  with  interest,  dictate  the  use 
of  such  simple  remedies  for  the  removal  of  suffering  and  dis- 
ease, as  may  be  within  reach. 

DiAKRHGBA  OR  SCOURS,  whcn  light  and  not  long  continued, 
calls  for  no  remedy.  It  is  a  healthful  provision  of  nature,  for 
the  more  rapid  expulsion  of  some  offending  matter  in  the  sys- 
tem, which  if  retained,  might  lead  to  disease.  It  is  generally 
diving  to  improper  food,  as  bad  hay  or  noxious  weeds  ;  to  a 
sudden  cjiangc,  as  from  dry  food  to  fresh  grass  ;  or  to  an  ex- 
cess, as  fi'om  overloading  the  stomach,  and  sometimes  from 
cold  and  wet.  The  remedies  are  obvious  ;  change  to  suitable 
food  in  the  first  two  cases ;  abstinence  after  repletion,  and 
warm,  dry  shelter  with  light  diet  in  the  last,  are  all  that  i^- 
necessary.  When  severe  or  long  continued,  a  dose  of  castor 
oil  may  be  given,  and  afler  its  operation,  give  4  grains  opium 
and  one  ounce  chalk,  and  put  them  on  dry  food.  Wheat 
bran  or  shorts  and  oat-meal  or  flax-seed  gruel,  are  good  both 
for  lambs  and  sheep  ;  as  are  also  ripe  oats  or  wheat  fed  in  the 
sheaf,  with  well  cured,  sweet  hay,  and  plenty  of  salt.     Fresh 


SHEEP.  355 

l)oughs  of  the  juniper  or  pine  and  hemlock,  help  to  check  the 
disorder. 

Looseness  in  the  larger  lambs  is  prevented  by  having  chalk 
within  their  reach,  or  if  they  refuse  it,  administer  it  in  their 
(bod.  When  it  happens  soon  after  birth,  place  it  with  the 
ewe  in  a  warm  place,  and  feed  the  latter  with  plenty  of  oats  or 
other  sound  grain.  If  the  milk  be  deficient,  give  the  lamb 
cow's  milk  scalded,  or  let  it  suck  the  cow.  The  tail  is  some- 
times glued  on  to  the  buttocks  while  the  scours  continue. 
Separate  it  immediately  by  the  use  of  warm  water,  and  rub 
the  parts  with  dry  loam  or  clay. 

Dysentery  is  a  different  and  frequently  a  fatal  disease,  but 
resembles  the  former  in  its  general  symptoms.  It  is  owing  to 
prolonged  diarrhoea,  unwholesome  or  meagre  food,  and  other 
causes.  Bleeding  and  physic  should  be  resorted  to,  after 
which  give  warm,  nourishing  gruel. 

HovEN. — See  Jioven  in  cattle. 

Braxy  is  manifested  by  uneasiness,  loathing  food,  fre- 
quent drinking,  carrying  the  head  down,  drawing  the  back 
up,  swollen  belly,  feverish  symptoms,  and  avoidance  of  the 
flock.  It  appears  mostly  in  late  autumn  and  spring,  and  may 
be  induced  by  exposure  to  severe  storms,  plunging  in  water 
when  hot,  and  especi  dly  by  constipation  brought  on  by  feed- 
ing on  frost-bitten,  putrid  or  indigestible  herbage.  Remedies 
are  not  often  succesful  unless  promptly  applied.  Bleed  freely, 
and  to  effect  this,  in  consequence  of  the  stagnant  state  of  the 
blood,  immersion  in  a  tub  of  hot  water  may  be  necessary. 
Then  give  two  oz.  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  warm  water, 
with  a  handful  of  common  salt.  If  this  is  unsuccessful,  give 
a  clyster  made  with  a  pipe-full  of  tobacco,  boiled  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  pint  of  water.  Administer  half,  and  if  unsuc- 
cessful, follow  with  the  remainder.  Then  bed  the  animal 
in  dry  straw  and  cover  with  blankets,  and  assist  the  purga- 
tives with  warm  gruels,  followed  by  laxitive  provender  till 
well. — (Blacklock.)  Thousands  of  sheep  have  died  on  the 
prairies  from  braxy,  induced  by  exposure  and  miserable 
forage.  Perfect  preventive  is  secured  by  warm,  dry  shelters, 
and  nutritious,  digestible  food. 

CosTrv  ENEss  is  removed  by  giving  two  table  spoonsful  of 
castor  oil  every  15  hours,  till  the  difficulty  is  removed  ;  or 
give  one  oz.  Epsom  salts.  This  may  be  assisted  by  an  injec- 
tion of  warm,  weak  suds  and  molasses. 

Stretches. — Sheep  sometimes  stretch  out  their  noses  on 
the  ground  and  around  their  sides  as  if  in  severe  pain.     This 


356  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

may  be  caused  by  an  involution  of  one  part  of  the  intestine 
within  another.  When  owing  to  this  cause,  the  difficulty  is 
frequently  removed,  by  jerking  the  animal  by  the  hind  legs 
several  times,  when  the  pain  disappears.  But  it  is  generally 
occasioned  by  costiveness,  which  see  above.  This  may  he 
prevented  by  using  green  food,  roots,  &;c.,  once  a  week,  or 
by  allowing  them  to  browse  on  the  evergreens,  pines,  &c. 

"^  Poison  from  laurel  and  other  plants,  is  cured  by  pouring 
a  gill  of  melted  lard  down  the  throat,  or  boil  for  an  hour  the 
twigs  of  the  white  ash,  and  give  a  i  to  1  gill  of  the  strong 
liquor  immediately;  to  be  repeated  if  not  successful. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  produced  by  improper 
exposure  to  cold  and  wet.  The  remedy  for  slight  aflec- 
ions,  is  warm,  dry  sheUer,  and  light  food.  When  severe, 
resort  must  l)e  had  to  bleeding  and  purging  freely,  then 
to  light  bran  or  linseed  mashes. 

Rot  sometimes  causes  the  death  of  a  million  of  sheep  in 
a  single  year  in  England,  yet  it  is  a  disease  almost  unknown 
in  this  country.  Foreign  authorities  ascribe  it  entirely  to 
excessive  humidity  of  cHmate,  wet  pastures,  or  too  watery 
food.  The  preventives  are  therefore  obvious.  After  the  use 
of  dry  food  and  dry  bedding,  one  of  the  best  is  the  abundant 
use  of  pure  salt.  In  violent  attacks,  early  bleeding,  followed 
by  a  dose  of  2  oz.  Epsom  salts,  to  be  repeated  if  necessary, 
with  a  change   of  diet  and  location,  is  all  that  can  be  done. 

FooT-KOT  is  frequently  a  prevalent  disease  among  Ameri- 
ean  sheep.  It  is  sometimes  spontaneous,  but  more  often  pro- 
duced by  contagion.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  caused  by  soft, 
rich,  or  moist  pastures.  A  dry  gravelly  or  rock)^  range,  will 
of  course  be  an  efTectual  preventive  when  owing  to  this 
cause.  Contagion  is  communicated,  by  the  absorbents  of 
Uic  foot  coming  In  contact  with  the  suppuration,  which  has 
been  \d\  on  the  ground  from  the  diseased  part.  Absolute 
safely  against  this  contagion  is  secured,  only  by  a  a  total 
avoidance  of  th<^  walks  of  the  infected  animals,  till  repeated 
rains,  r)r  what  is  better,  frosts  have  disarmed  the  virus  of  its 
malignity.  Rfmedics'  are  variously  conjpomided,  of  blue 
vitriol,  verdigris,  tar,  spirits  of  turpentine,  alum,  saltpetre, 
salt,  lime,  coj)peras,  wliite  lead,  antimony,  alcohol,  urine 
vinegar,  &c.,  all  of  which  are  effectual.  The  hoof  should 
first  be  pared  and  thoroughly  scraped.  Then  apply  a  wash 
made  of  three  parts  of  blue  vitriol,  one  of  verdigris  pulverised 
finely,  with  scalding  (not  boiling)  vinegar;  stirring  briskly 
till  it  is  of  the  consistence  of  thin  cream,  and  put  it  upon  the 


6HEHi\  "         357 

affected  part  with  a  painl  brush.  It  is  a  good  preventive,  to 
apply  this  to  the  sound  teet  of  the  affected  animal.  Another 
remedy  is  to  use  spirits  of  turpentine  after  scraping  ;  and  if 
the  disease  is  of  long  standing,  add  to  the  turpctine  a  strong 
decoction  of  blue  vitriol  dissolved  in  water.  The  foot  should 
be  examined  every  week,  and  the  remedy  repeated  till  perfect 
soundness  is  restored.  A  feather  dipped  in  muriatic  or  nitric 
acid  and  applied  to  the  parts  after  scraping  and  cleansing, 
is  a  good  remedy.  When  put  upon  the  soles  o?  foot-sore 
sheep,  it  hardens  the  hoofs  and  enables  them  to  travel  better. 
Sheep  are  sometimes  cured  by  keeping  them  on  a  dry  surface, 
and  driving  over  a  barn  floor  daily,  which  is  well  covered 
with  quick  lime.  It  may  also  be  cured  by  dryness  and 
repeated  washing  with  soap-suds.  The  above  ailment  should 
not  be  confounded  with  a  temporary  soreness  or  inflammation 
of  the  hoof,  occasioned  by  the  irritation  from  the  long  rough 
grasses  which  abound  in  low  situations,  which  is  removed 
with  the  cause;  or  if  it  continues,  apply  white  paint  or  tar, 
after  thorough  washing. 

Corrosion  of  the  flesh  by  flies  ok  maggots,  may 
be  cured  by  first  removing  the  vermin,  then  wash  with 
Castile  soap  and  warm  soft  w^ater,  after  which  apply  white 
lead  with  linseed  oil.  Tar  put  on  the  festering  wound  cor- 
rodes it ;  but  this,  or  spirits  of  turpentine  placed  on  the  sound 
parts  near  it,  keep  oft'  the  flies  by  their  strong  effluvia.  If 
the  wound  Ije  slight  and  the  weather  moderate,  apply  a  little 
spirits  of  turpentine  with  a  strong  decoction  of  elder  bark. 
Flies  on  sheep  may  be  prevented  by  smearing  with  a  compo- 
sition made  of  two  lbs.  lard  or  soft  grease,  one  lb.  sulphur, 
h  pint  oil  of  amber,  or  oil  of  tar,  or  tar  alone.  A  small 
spoonful  is  sufficient  for  a  sheep. — {Genesee  Farmer^  ml.  7.) 

Protection  from  the  gad-fly. — In  July,  August,  and 
September,  in  the  northern  states,  the  gad-jly  {CEstiis  Oois) 
attacks  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep,  and  there  deposits  its  eggs, 
which  on  being  hatched,  immediately  crawl  up  and  make  a 
lodgment  in  the  head.  They  are  frequently  repelled,  by  lay- 
ing a  thick  coat  of  tar  on  the  bottom  of  the  troughs,  and 
sprinkling  it  with  salt.  The  smell  of  the  tar  adhering  to 
the  nose,  will  drive  oft'  the  fly.  A  more  effectual  remedy  is 
to  apply  it  thoroughly  with  a  brush  to  the  external  part  ol 
the  nose.  If  a  few  furrows  of  loose  earth  are  turned  up  in 
their  pastures,  the  sheep  will  hold  their  noses  to  them  and 
thus  keep  off  the  fly.  The  symptoms  of  grubs  in  the  head, 
are  drooping  of  the  head  and  ears,  discharge  of  bloody  and 


358  AMERICAN     AGRiCULTtJRiJ. 

watery  matter  from  the  nostrils,  and  loss  of  strength  in  limbs. 
If*  Worms  have  made  a  lodgment,  take  h  lb.  of  good  Scotch 
snuff,  add  2  quarts  bc»iling  water,  stir  and  let  it  stand  till  cold. 
Inject  about  a  tabic  s^poonfid  of  this  liquid  and  sediment  up 
each  nostril  with  a  syringe.  Repeat  this  three  or  four  times 
at  intervals,  from  the  middle  of  October  till  January;  the 
grubs  are  then  small  and  will  not  have  injured  the  sheep* 
The  efficacy  of  the  snuti'  will  be  increased,  by  adding  i  an 
oz.asafoetida,  pounded  in  a  little  water.  The  effect  on  the 
sheep,  is  immediate  prostration  and  apparent  death,  but  they 
will  soon  recover.  A  decoction  of  tobacco  will  afford  a  sub- 
stitute for  snuff. — -{N.  England  Farmer.)  Blacklock's  rem- 
edy is  to  half  fill  the  bowl  of  a  pipe  with  tobacco,  light  it 
and  then  hold  the  sheep,  while  a  person  inserts  the  stem  some 
distance  into  the  nostrils,  and  blows  a  few  wdiifs  into  the 
nose.     The  operation  is  then  repeated  with  the  other  nostril. 

Swollen  mouth  is  sometimes  fatal.  It  is  said  to  be  cured 
by  daubing  the  lips  and  mouth  plentifully  with  tar. — {Albany 
Cultivator,  vol.  7.) 

Foul  Noses. — Dip  a  small  swab  into  tar,  then  roll  in  salt. 
Put  some  on  the  nose  and  compel  the  shee[)  to  swallow  a 
small  quantity. — {American  Farmer.) 

A  disease  indicated  by  drooping^  running  at  the  eyes,  weak- 
ness in  the  back  and  loins,  inability  to  use  the  hind  legs,  was 
removed  by  turning  the  sheep  into  a  pasture  containing  Lobe- 
lia  {Indian  tobacco).  Dried  lobelia  was  also  given,  and  pro- 
duced the  same  eflect. — {Cultivator,  vol.  2.) 

Scab. — This  loathsome  disease,  to  which  fine-wooled  sheep 
are  particularly  liable,  is  caused,  like  itch  in  the  human  sub- 
ject, by  a  small  insect,  a  species  of  the  acari.  It  is  fiist  man- 
ifest by  the  rubbing  of  the  sheep,  and  soon  after  by  one  or 
jpore  tufls  of  wool,  which  is  loosened  at  the  routs.  On  feel- 
ing the  skin,  a  hard  dry  tumor  is  perceptible.  To  prevent 
contagion,  remove  the  infected  sheep  to  a  Sv^parate  pasture  or 
yard  as  soon  as  discovered.  The  Spanish  shepherds  disolvc 
a  little  salt  in  their  mouth  and  drop  it  upon  the  infected  part. 
When  the  tumor  has  become  enlarged,  the  wool  shoujd 
be  removed  closely  to  the  skin,  the  scab  scraped  with  a  curry, 
comb,  then  wash  with  strong  soap-suds  or  ley,  and  after- 
wards rub  thoroughly  with  sulphur  or  brimstone,  mixed  with 
lard  or  grease.  An  effectual  remedy  is  prepared  by  taking 
one  pound  of  tobacco  which  add  to  12  qts.  ley  from  woofl 
ashes,  of  sufficient  strength  for  washing,  and  four  quarts 
urine  ;  to  this  add  another  mixture  of  a  gill  high.wines,  i  oz. 


SHEEP.  359 

camphor,  i  oz.  Spanish  brown,  and  h  gill  spirits  of  turpentine. 
A  small  qnantity  of  this  applied  to  the  sore,  will  never  fail. 
Immediately  after  shearing,  scab  may  readily  be  cured  by 
immersing  the  sheep,  (excepting  the  head,)  in  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  tobacco  liquor,  adding  a  gill  of  spirits  of  turpentine 
for  the  first,  and  making  a  slight  addition  of  fresh  liquid  lor 
each  shee[>  immersed,  enough  to  keep  up  the  strength  of  the 
tobacco  and  turpentine,  and  tnking  care  to  rub  the  affected 
part  thoroughly.  For  lambs,  this  liquor  should  be  diluted,  but 
yet  left  strong  enough  to  kill  ticks  in  one  or  two  minutes,  which 
may  be  ascertained  by  experiment.  For  killing  ticks  this 
last  is  a  good  remedy.  After  dipping  the  sheep  or  lambs,  the 
liquor  should  be  pressed  out  from  the  wool,  upon  an  inclined 
plane,  so  arranged  as  again  to  run  into  the  vessel.  Scab  is 
also  removed  by  using  a  composition  of  one  pound  plug  tobacco 
to  three  gallons  water,  with  lime-water  and  oil  of  vitriol  added 
or  a  decoction  of  hellebore  with  vinegar,  sulphur  and  spirits 
of  turpentine. — (//.  /?.  Grove.)  Scab  is  propagated  more  by 
using  the  same  rubbing  posts,  than  by  contact  with  each  other. 
Sheep   in  low  condition  are   more  subject  to  it  than  others. 

Ticks  and  lice  sometimes  infest  sheep.  Good  feeding  and 
shelter  is  a  partial  preventive,  but  when  they  have  made  their 
lodgement, .  they  must  be  dipped  in  a  decoction  of  tobacco 
water.  The  most  effectual  time  for  their  destruction,  is  a  few 
days  after  shearing,  when  they  will  have  left  the  naked  bodies 
of  the  old  ewes  to  hide  in  the  fleeces  of  the  lambs.  The  dip- 
ping in  tobacco  water  is  an  effectuj#  remedy. 

Pelt-rot  will  be  recoguized  as  one  of  the  staple  diseases 
of  our  native  sJieep,  described  on  page  322.  The  wool  in 
this  case  falls  otli  leaving  the  sheep  partially  or  almost  wholly 
naked  ;  but  it  is  not  accompanied  with  soreness  or  apparent 
disease.  The  animal  must  be  provided  with  a  warm  stall  and 
generous  feed,  and  the  naked  skin  should  be  anointed  with 
tar  and  grease.     The  preventive  is  good  keeping  and  shelter. 

Staggers  or  sturdy,  and  water  ix  the  head,  some- 
times affect  sheep,  but  more  especially  lambs  under  a  year 
old.  The  first  is  caused  by  the  hydatid.  It  is  considered 
as  an  almost  incurable  disorder,  but  is  sometimes  removed  by 
trepanning.  Chancellor  Livingston  carefully  supplied  two 
thus  attacked,  with  food  for  three  months,  when  nature 
eii'ected  a  cure.  Removal  to  dry  lands  and  purging,  is  a  good 
precaution  when  they  are  first  taken.  An  English  lad  lately 
cured  one  which  had  been  given  up,  by  boring  with  a  gimblet 
into  the  sofl  place  on  the  head,  when  the  water  rushed  out 


360  AMERICAN     AGRlCULTURti. 

and  the  sheep  immediately  followed  the  others  to  the  pasture. 
A  correspondent  of  the  Albany  Cultivator  asserts,  that  h  a 
pint  of  melted  lard  poured  down  the  throat,  will  cure  blind 
staggers  in  10  minutes. 

Abortion  occurs  sometimes,  and  is  usually  caused  by 
excessive  fright  or  exertion,  and  sometimes  by  severe  expo- 
sure and  poor  feed.  It  is  seldom  fatal,  except  to  the  lamb. 
The  iitefus  is  occasionally  protruded  after  lambing.  It  should 
be  immediately  returned,  first  washing  it  in  warm  milk 
and  water,  if  any  dirt  adheres  to  it.  For  this,  the  hand  only 
should  be  used.  After  rubbing  it  with  lard  or  oil,  hold  up 
the  hind  legs,  and  gently  replace  the  protruded  parts,  then 
keep  the  ewe  quiet  till  fully  recovered. 

For  garget,  or  caked  bag. — Keep  the  bag  thoroughly 
drained  of  milk,  for  which  purpose  the  lamb  is  the  most 
efficient.  If  it  is  lost,  another  may  be  temporarily  substitu- 
ted. Purge  freely  with  Epsom  salts,  and  wash  the  udder 
repeatedly  with  very  warm  water.  If  matter  forms,  it  should 
be  opened  with  the  lancet. 

Bleeding. — "  Nothing  tends  so  much  to  the  recovery  of 
an  animal  from  a  disease  in  which  bleeding  is  required,  as 
the  rapid  flow  of  the  blood  from  a  large  orifice.  Little 
impression  can  be  make  on  an  acute  disease  by  the  slow 
removal  of  even  a  large  quantity  of  blood,  as  the  organs 
have  time  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  loss,  which 
might,  for  any  good  it  will  do,  as  well  be  dispensed  with. 
Either  bleed  rapidly  or  not  at  all.  The  nearer  the  com- 
mencement of  an  ailment,  in  which  you  employ  bleeding, 
the  o[)eration  is  resorted  to,  the  greater  the  chance  of  its 
doing  good.  IJlceding  by  nicking  the  under  surface  of  the 
tail,  does  very  well  where  no  great  deal  of  l)lood  is  required, 
^but  it  is  not  to  be  thought  of  if  the  veins  of  the  face  or 
neck  can  possibly  be  opened.  These  are  to  be  taken  in 
))reference  to  a  vein  on  the  leg,  as  they  are  much  more 
readily  got  at.  The  facial  vein  commences  by  small  branch- 
es on  the  side  of  the  face,  and  runs  downwards  and  back- 
wards to  the  base  of  the  jaw,  where  it  may  be  felt  within 
two  inches  of  the  angle,  or  opposite  the  middle  grinding 
tooth.  It  is  here  that  the  orifice  must  be  made;  the  thumb 
of  the  left  hand  being  held  against  the  vein,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  flow  of  blood  towards  the  heart  will  make  it  rise.  Some 
prefer  opening  the  jugular  vein,  which  commences  behind 
the  eye  and  runs  down  the  side  of  the  neck.  This  vessel  is, 
however,  more  difficult  to  open  that  the  former,  being  better 


SHEPHERD    DOGS.  361 

covered  with  wool,  and  not  so  easily  exposed  or  made  to 
swell.  Stringing  is  the  mode  commonly  resorted  t©  for  this 
end;  that  is  to  say,  a  cord  is  drawn  tightly  round  the  neck 
cJose  to  the  shoulder,  so  as  to  stop  the  circulation  through 
the  vein,  and  render  it  perceptible  to  the  linger.  A  lancet 
is  the  instrument  generally  used  in  bleeding,  though  a  well- 
pointed  penknite  will  do  at  a  pinch.  The  opening  must 
always  be  made  obliquely;  but  before  attempting  this,  the 
animal  must  be  secured,  by  placing  it  between  the  operator's 
legs,  with  its  croup  against  a  wall.  The  selected  vein  is 
then  fixed  by  the  fingers  of  the  operator's  letl  hand,  so  as  to 
prevent  its  rolling  or  slipping  before  the  lancet.  Having 
fairly  entered  the  vein,  the  point  of  the  instrument  must  be 
elevated  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  pushed  a  little  forward, 
by  which  motion  it  will  be  lifted  from  or  cut  its  way  out  of 
the  vein.  A  prescribed  quantity  of  blood  sJioidd  never  be 
drawn,  for  the  simple  reason  that  this  can  never  b©  precise- 
ly stated.  If  the  symptoms  are  urgent,  as  in  all  likelihood 
they  will,  your  best  plan  is  not  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  till 
the  animal  fall  or  is  about  to  fall.  When  this  occurs,  run  a 
pin  through  the  edges  of  the  orifice,  and  finish  by  twisting 
round  it  a  lock  of  wool." — (Blacklock,) 

Large  cuts  are  healed  by  first  sewing  and  then  cover- 
ing with  salve.  Smaller  ones  may  be  secured  with  an 
adhesive  plaster  or  bandage. 

To    PROTECT   LAMBS    FROM  WOLVES  AI\D  FOXES,    smcar  the 

neck  plentifully  with  a  mixture  of  tar  and  sulphur.  Bells 
are  also  said  to  guard  them,  as  both  are  excessively  wary, 
and  have  a  great  dislike  to  any  thing  artificial.  Large  dogs 
will  keep  them  at  bay.  A  better  remedy  is  to  kill  the  ma- 
rauders, which  may  be  done  by  inserting  strychnine  in  fresh 
meat  and  leaving  it  in  their  haunts. 

SHEPHERD  DOGS. 

Of  these  there  are  two  widely  distinct  breeds.  One 
embraces  the  large  Spanish  dog  and  their  descendants, 
the  Mexican,  and  some  other  varieties,  which  are  of  a 
size,  strength  and  courage  sutficient  to  defend  the  flock 
against  wolves,  or  other  formidable  enemies.  They  are 
frequently  inclined  to  be  ferocious,  and  will  sometimes  com- 
mit depredations  on  the  flocks  themselves.  They  are  o!ily 
necessary  where  there  is  danger  from  wild  beasts  and  prowl- 
ing dogs,  against  which,  if  thoroughly  trained,  they  are 
always  an  efficient  protection.  The  smaller  kind  is  invalua- 
P 


362  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

ble  for  assisting  the  shepherd  in  bringing  in  his  sheep,  keep- 
ing them  within  any  required  compass,  driving  them  from 
place  to  place  and  giving  signal  of  danger.  There  are 
numerous  sub-varieties,  of  different  sizes:  some  with  long 
tails,  others  without  any;  some  smooth-haired,  but  more 
generally  shaggy  or  long-haired.  Each  of  these  have  a  natu- 
ral instinct  for  the  management  of  sheep,  and,  if  properly 
educated,  will  seldom  fail  to  answer  every  reasonable  wish 
of  their  masters.  Unless  sheep  are  confined  in  small  pas- 
tures, and  are  so  familiar  and  manageable  as  to  come 
readily  at  call,  the  use  of  the  sheep-dog  will  save  much  of 
the  shepherd's  time.  He  has  the  intelligence  of  a  man  in 
comprehending  the  wants  of  the  shepherd,  and  is  vastly 
more  efficient  in  bringing  them  together,  or  driving  on  the 
road  and  keeping  them  separate  from  other  flocks.  Sheep 
soon  get  accustomed  to  them,  and  without  being  alarmed  by 
their  presence,  they  learn  to  regard  them  as  guides,  whom 
they  must  implicitly  obey.  All  the  above  varieties  have 
been  imported,  and  the  smaller  ones  are  now  extensively 
bred  in  this  country. 


THE    HOUSE.  368 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 


i 


THE    HORSE. 


In  nearly  all  ages  and  countries,  the  horse  has  been  the 
devoted  servant,  and  the  object  of  the  pride  and  affection 
of  man.  Among  the  semi-civilized  Tartars  of  middle  and 
northern  Asia,  the  Aborigines  of  our  remote  western  prairies, 
reaching  even  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  some 
other  rude  nations,  his  flesh  is  used  for  food.  Many  tribes 
among  the  tbrmer,  use  the  milk  for  domestic  purposes,  and 
especially  when  fermented  and  changed  to  an  unpleasantly 
sour  and  intoxicating  beverage.  But  throughout  the  civil- 
ized world,  with  some  slight  exceptions,  the  horse  is  useful 
only  for  his  labor.  For  this  purpose  he  is  pre-eminently 
fitted  by  his  compact,  closely  knit  frame;  his  sinewy,  muscu- 
lar limbs;  his  easy,  rapid  stride;  his  general  form  and  entire 
structure  and  habits.  He  is  found  in  his  wild  condition  in 
central  Asia,  Siberia,  and  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  for  300 
years  he  has  been  turned  loose  to  follow  his  native  instincts 
on  the  illimitable  pampas  of  South  America,  and  the  wide- 
spread prairies  of  Mexico  and  California.  In  all  these 
regions  he  closely  resembles  the  medium  varieties  of  the 
domesticated  horse,  but  as  the  natural  result  of  his  freedom, 
he  possesses  more  fire 'and  spirit  than  any  other,  except  the 
blood  horse. 

Arabia  is  generally  claimed  as  the  original  native  locality 
of  the  horse,  and  as  the  only  source  from  which  he  is  to  be 
derived  in  the  requisite  perfection  for  the  highest  improve- 
ment of  the  race.  But  Strabo,  who  wrote  more  than  1800 
years  ago,  asserts  that  the  horse  did  not  then  flourish  in 
Arabia,  and  it  was  not  till  some  centuries  later,  that  he 
attained  any  decided  superiority  there.  (rreat  attention, 
however,  has  been  paid  in  that  country,  since  the  era  of 
Mahomet,  to  the  possession  of  a  light,  agile  and  enduring 
frame,  intelligence  and   tractability  of  character,   and  the 


364  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

perpetuation  of  these  qualities,  by  the  most  scrupulous  regard 
for  the  purity  of  blood.  This  is  equally^true  of  the  Barb  or 
pure-bred  horse  of  Morocco,  and  those  of  the  northern  coast 
of  Africa,  in  Kgypt,  among  the  Turks,  and  indeed  wherever 
the  followers  of  the  Prophet  are  to  be  found.  It  is  unques- 
tionable  that  the  influence  of  the  eastern  blood  among  the 
choicest  animals  of  modern  Europe,  has  been  followed  by 
great  improvements  in  racing  stock.  Yet  it  is  equally 
certain,  that  the  race  horse,  both  of  England  and  the  United 
States,  has  acccomplished  what  has  never  been  demonstrated 
as  within  the  ability  of  their  progenitors;  and  on  repeated 
trials  witii  the  eastern  horses,  he  has  shown  himself  confess- 
edly their  superior  in  speed,  strength  and  endurance.  In  1825, 
two  English  horses  ran  against  the  two  fleetest  Cossacks 
which  could  be  found  throughout  the  entire  region  of  their 
best  blood,  and  in  a  continued  race  of  47  miles,  the  Euro- 
j)ean  took  the  stakes.  Sharper,  the  most  successful,  perform- 
ing the  distance  in  2  hours  and  48  minutes.  About  the 
same  time,  Recruit,  an  English  horse  of  moderate  reputa- 
tion, easily  beat  Pyramus,  the  best  Arabian  on  the  Bengal 
side  o(  India.  The  Leeds,  the  Darley  and  the  Godolphin 
Arabian;  the  Lister  and  D'Arcey's  White  Turk,  and  other 
noted  eastern  horses,  would  not  compare  in  performance  with 
many  of  their  descendants.  But  these,  with  some  other 
choice  Arabians,  on  the  best  mares,  and  with  every  advan- 
tage for  obtaining  celebrity,  have  succeeded  in  establishing 
a  fame  as  just  as  it  has  been  enduring.  Yet  it  must  at  the 
same  time  be  remembered,  that  of  the  innumerable  other  pure- 
bred horses  which  have  been  tried  in  Europe,  a  few  only 
have  rescued  their  names  from  oblivion. 

The  experience  of  eastern  blood  in  this  country,  in  com- 
parison with  the  best  English,  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  lat- 
t6r.  We  have  had  one  horse  of  unsurpassed  excellence,  which 
a  fortunate  accident  threw  upon  our  shores  a  short  time  pre- 
vious to  1770.  This  w(js  the  white  Barb  Ranger^  which  was 
presented  by  the  Emperor  of  Morocco  as  the  choice  of  his 
stud,  to  an  English  naval  ofiicer  tor  some  distinguished 
service.  On  his  route  homeward,  the  animal  was  set  oh 
shore  for  exercise  at  an  intermediate  port,  where  in  his  gam- 
bols he  broke  three  of  his  legs,  and  thinking  him  worthless, 
his  owner  gave  him  to  the  commander  of  a  New  England 
merchantman,  then  present.  He  was  readily  accepted,  and 
placed  in  slings  on  board  of  his  vessel,  and  recovered. 
This  animal  stood  for  many  years  in  the  eastern  part  of 


THE    HORSE.  365 

Connecticut,  and  on  their  good  mares,  produced  a  numerous 
progeny  of  unrivalled  cavalry  horses,  which  rendered  inval- 
uable services  in  the  troop  commanded  by  that  consummate 
partisan,  Captain  (atterwards  General)  Lee,  of  the  revolution. 
It  is  said  the  favorite  white  field-horse  of  General  Washing- 
ton, was  of  the  same  stock.  He  vva^i  afterwards  sold  to 
Captain  Lindsey,  as  a  special  favor,  and  taken  to  Virginia, 
where  he  produced  some  good  racers.  Bussorah,  a  small 
sorrel  horse,  brought  into  this  country  from  the  head  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  in  1819,  then  5  years  old,  got  many  choice 
roadsters,  though  few,  if  any  racers.  The  Narraganset 
pacers,  a  race  belonging  to  our  eastern  states,  but  for  many 
years  almost  extinct,  possessed  for  a  long  time  an  unrivalled 
reputation  for  spirit,  endurance  and  easy,  rapid  motion 
under  ihe  saddle;  and  they  are  said  to  have  originated  from  a 
Spanish  horse,  many  of  which  are  pure  descendants  of  the 
Barb.  As  an  ofiset  to  these  isolated  examples  of  success 
in  this  country,  we  have  numerous  instances  of  the  importa- 
tion of  the  best  Orientals,  which  have  been  extensively  used 
on  some  of  our  superior  mares,  without  any  marked  effect. 
We  shall  refer  to  three  prominent  importations  only.  The 
first  consisted  of  two  choice  Arabians,  or  Barbs,  selected  in 
Tunis  by  General  Eaton,  and  sent  to  his  estate  in  Massa- 
chusetts. The  second  was  a  present  of  four  choice  Barbs 
from  the  Emperor  of  Morocco  to  our  government,  in  1830; 
and  the  third  consisted  of  two  Arabians,  sent  by  the  Imaum 
of  Muscat,  near  the  Persian  Gulf,  to  our  government  in  1839 
or  '40.  These  were  all  claimed  to  be,  and  no  doubt  were, 
of  the  pure  Kochlani,  the  unadulterated  line  royal;  yet  none 
have  earned  any  distinguished  reputation. 

It  is  to  England  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  the  great 
improvement  in  our  blood,  road  and  farm  horses.  A  numer- 
ous race  of  fine  horses  were  reared  on  that  Island,  long  pre- 
vious to  any  authentic  history  of  it ;  for  in  his  first  invasion, 
Julius  Caesar  took  many  of  them  to  Rome,  where  they  imme- 
diately became  grtat  favorites,  although  this  mistress  of  half 
the  known  world,  had  already  plundered  every  region  of  some 
of  their  best  breeds.  What  might  have  been  the  particular 
merit  of  the  English  horse  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  inva- 
sion, is  not  known,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Saxon  cavalry 
under  Harold,  were  speedily  over-powered  by  William,  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  which  at  once  secured  the  throne  to  the 
Conqueror.  History  first  informs  us  of  the  improvement  of 
British  horses,  by  importations  from  abroad  during  this  reign, 


•d(8  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

which  consisted  of  a  number  of  Spanish  stallions.  These 
were  supposed  to  be  strongly  imbued  with  the  Arabian  blood, 
which  had  been  brought  over  to  that  country  by  the  Moors, 
who  had  founded  the  Saracenic  empire  in  the  Peninsula,  three 
centuries  before.  More  than  a  century  later,  John  made 
some  importations  from  Flanders,  to  give  weight  and  sub- 
stance to  their  draught  and  cavalry  horses.  The  improve- 
ment of  their  various  breeds,  was  afterwards  pursued  with 
more  or  less  judgement  and  zeal,  by  other  British  monarchs, 
till  they  reached  their  highest  excellence  during  the  middle 
of  the  last  century.  Flying  Childers,  Eclipse,  Highflyer,  and 
others  on  the  course,  have  probably  exceeded  in  speed  any- 
thing  ever  before  accomplished ;  while  the  draught-horse,  the 
roadster,  the  hackney,  the  cavalry  horse  and  the  hunter, 
attained  a  merit  at  that  time,  which  some  judicious  author- 
ities claim,  has  nol  been  since  increased,  ft  is  even  asserted, 
that  some  of  the  more  serviceable  breeds,  have  been  seriously 
injured  by  too  great  an  infusion  of  the  blood ;  while  the 
almost  universal  absence  of  longboats  on  the  turf,  has  tended 
to  the  improvement  of  speed,  rather  than  bottom  in  the  race 
horse. 

The  improvement  of  the  horse  in  this  country,  has  not  been 
a  matter  of  record  or  history,  till  within  a  comparatively  recent 
period.  But  it  has  silently,  and  with  no  little  rapidity  been  going 
Ibrward,  for  more  than  a  century,  till  we  have  obtained  a  race 
of  animals,  throughout  the  eastern  and  middle  states  at  least, 
which  probably  equal  those  of  any  other  country  for  adapted- 
ness  to  draught,  the  road  and  the  saddle.  This  improvement 
has  been  mainly  brought  about,  by  the  importation  of  some 
of  the  best  and  stoutest  of  tJie  English  blood.  In  breeding 
from  these  for  purposes  of  utility,  particular  reference  has 
hpen  paid  to  strength,  enduringness  and  speed.  No  horses 
surpass  our  best  tour-mile  bloods  ;  none  equal  our  trotters ; 
and  though  much  inequality  exists  in  those  bred  for  our  vari- 
ous other  uses,  yet  for  profitable  service,  it  is  believed,  no  equal 
number  of  animals  elsewhere,  can  exceed  those  in  the  region 
above  indicated.  It  would  be  a  superfluous  task  to  attempt 
enumerating  all  the  imported  horses  that  have  contributed  to 
this  improvement.  Each  good  animal  has  done  something. 
But  among  the  earlier  horses  which  may  be  named  with  dis- 
tinction, as  having  eflected  much  for  our  useful  beasts,  are 
Lath,  Wildair,  Slender,  Sour-krout,  Tally-ho,  Figure,  Bay 
Richmond,  Expedition,  Baronet,  and  a  host  of  others.  Pre- 
eminent among   these,   was  imported  Messenger.     He  was 


THE  HORSE. 


861 


foaled  in  1780,  imported  in  1788,  and  died  in  1808.     He  stood 

in  difl'erent  places  in  New-Jerse}^ ;  and  in  Dutchess,  West- 
chester and  Queens  counties  in  New-York  ;  and  upon  the 
mares  derived  trom  the  foregoing  and  other  good  horses,  he 
got  a  numerous  progeny  of  iUustrious  descendants.  Of 
these,  we  may  name  those  capital  stallions,  Potomac,  Hani- 
lintonian,  Bay  Figure,  Engineer,  Manbrino,  Tippoo  Saib, 
Columbus,  Gunn's,  and  Bushe's  Messenger,  and  many  others, 
which  were  extensively  disseminated  over  the  northern  and 
middle  states  ;  and  he  has  the  credit  of  imparting  a  large 
share  of  his  merits  to  his  grandson,  that  nonpareil  of  horses, 
American  Eclipse.  His  posterity  were  so  numerous  and 
widely  spread,  that  it  may  he  safely  asserted  that  of  the  best 
horses  bred  in  the  above  states,  scarcely  one  can  now  be  found, 
which  does  not  trace  one  or  more  crosses  to  his  distinguished 
sire.  His  suc<;ess  in  producing  roadsters,  besides  his  blood 
qualities  of  speed  and  endurance,  consisted  in  his  great 
strength  and  the  peculiar  formation  of  his  limbs,  large  fore- 
hand and  deep  quarters,  in  which  he  excelled  any  other  of  the 
imported  bloods. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  may  be  accomplished  by  judi- 
cious breeding  with  the  present  materials  in  om-  hands,  we 
mention  one  family  of  the  American  roadster,  which  is  strongly 
tinctured  with  blood,and  which  has  attained  an  enviable  nota- 
riety  among  the  choicest  of  the  northern  horses.  They  are 
derived  from  the  Morgan  horse  of  Vermont,  that  was  foaled 
in  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1793.  He  was  got  by  Tru3  Britton, 
supposed  to  have  been  bred  by  Gen.  Delancey  of  New-York, 
and  got  by  imported  Wildair,  (or  one  of  his  sons,)  a  horse  of 
such  distinguished  excellence,  as  to  have  been  re-exported  to 
England,  for  the  benefit  of  his  stock.  The  Morgan  horse 
stood  in  Vermont  from  1795,  till  his  death,  at  an  advanced 
age.  From  him  and  the  choice  marcs  of  Vermont,  descended 
many  excellent  colts ;  and  his  merits  were  inherited  in  an 
eminent  degree  by  three  of  his  sons,  which  stood  in  the  same 
state  and  continued  the  career  of  improvement  commenced 
by  the  sire.  The.  result  has  been  the  production  of  a  family 
of  roadsters,  of  much  similarity  of  appearance*  and  uniformity 
of  character,  unsurpassed  by  any  others  for  surviceable  quali- 
ties.    They  are  of  medium  size,  from  13  J  to  15  hands  high  ; 

*Many  of  the  Morgan  horses  have  the  steep  rump  and  heavy  breast  and  neck, 
which  indicates  a  Norman  cross  on  the  side  of  their  dams,  which  has  been  largely 
imported  through  the  French  horse  in  the  adjoining  Canadian  settlements ;  but 
none  of  these  are  said  to  have  characterised  the  founder  of  the  race. 


AMEBIC  AN    AGRICULTURE. 

with  a  well.formed  head  and  neck ;  high  withers  ;  deep  chest ; 
round  body ;  short  back ;  long  quarters ;  broad  fiat  legs ; 
moderately  small  feet ;  long  wavy  mane  and  tail ;  presenting 
altogether  the  beau  ideal  of  the  road  horse.  They  are 
spirited,  docile,  hardy  and  easily  kept.  They  have  an  easy, 
rapid  trot,  and  glide  along  with  a  good  load,  without  clatter  or 
apparent  effort,  at  the  rate  of  10  or  12  miles  an  hour.  This 
family  of  horses  has  not  of  course  been  bred  long  enough 
within  themselves,  to  have  attained  to  the  eminence  of  a  dis- 
tinct breed.  They  are  mentioned,  merely  as  a  type  of  what 
the  serviceftble  roadster  ought  to  be,  and  what  he  may  become 
by  the  use  of  the  proper  instmment  for  breeding.  And  if 
the  materials  already  in  our  hands  are  intelligently  and 
perseveringly  used,  we  can  produce  all  we  require  of  liorse- 
tlesh. 

Besides  our  usurpassed  blood-horses,  we  have  others  derived 
from  various  sources,  and  especially  from  the  different  Eng- 
lish breeds,  all  of  which  are  variously  compounded,  with  the 
first  and  with  each  other.     On  our  north-eastern  frontier,  the 
Canadian  prevails,  a  bastard  but  not  degenerate  race,  made 
up  of  the  French  Norman  and   the  English  or  American 
At  the  extreme  south  and  west,  we  have  the  liorse  of  Spanish 
origin,  obtained  in  his  domestic  state  in  Florida  and  Louisi- 
ana ;  and  fiom  another  branch  of  the  Spanish,  are  desended 
the  wild  horses   of  Mexico  and  the   more  northern  prairies. 
These    are   diversified  in   character,  and  generally  possess 
medium  size  and  merit.     The  Concstoga,  a  heavy  roadster,  is 
principally  reared  in  Pennsylvania,  and  is  used  for  the  team 
and  truck.     He  is  an  amalgamation  of  several  breeds,  but 
probably  owes  a  share  of  his  character  to  the  Flemish  horse, 
for  which  there  was  a  decided  partiality  among  the  numerous 
Gj^inan  emigrants  of  that  state.     Several  varieties  of  ponies 
are  to  be  found  in  different  sections,   but  principally  among 
the  French,  the  half-breed  and  the   Indians   upon   the  fron- 
tiers, who  have  bred  a  stunted  race  from  the  Canadian  or  wild 
horse,  and  such  others  as  could  survive  the  hard  usage  and 
the  scanty  winter  food,  afforded  by  nature  and  their  rude  hus-i. 
bandry.     Many  of  these  have  considerable  beauty  and  sym- 
metry, and  are  fleet,  hardy  and  spirited.     The  modern  Nor- 
man, or  mixture  of  the  old  French  Norman  draught-horse, 
(heavy-framed,  big-limbed  but  stout  and  hardy,)  and  the  Anda- 
lusian,  a  descendant  of  the  Moorish  barbs,  has  been  introduced 
within  a  few  years,  and  will  unquestionably  become  a  very 
popular  horse  for  many  purposes.     He  exhibits  the  qualities 


THE  HORSE.  369 

of  both  ancestry  iii  the  proper  proportions  for  farm  service. 
He  has  a  thick  head  ;  lively,  prick  ears  ;  short ,  heavy  neck  ; 
large   breast   and   shoulder ;  strong  limbs ;  well-knit   back ; 
large  quarters  with  much  wavy  mane,  tail  and  fetlock.     Like 
his  French  progenitor,  he  frequently  stands  low  in  the  withers, 
which  enables  him  to  throw  great  weight  into  the  collar ;  and 
the  diminished,  flattened  leg,  the  wind  and  game  derived  from 
his  Moorish  blood,  give  him  much  of  the  capacity  and  endur- 
ance  of  the  thorough -bred.     The  English  cart-horse  has  for  a 
long  time  made  up  some  of  the  best,  heavy  dray  horses  in  the 
country,  and  late  importations  have  refreshed  the  breed   with 
additional   choice   specimens.     The  Cleveland  hay  has  been 
introduced  of  late,  and  promises  good   carriage  horses   from 
our  well-spread,  sizeable  mares.     The  Norfolk  trotter,  Bel- 
founder,  was  imported  many  years  since,  and  with  our  high- 
bred mares,  has  produced  many  choice  roadsters  and  trotters. 
The  remainder  of  our  horse-flesh  deserving  of  any  notice,  is 
chiefly  composed  of  such  as  are  superior  in  point  of  blood  and 
merit.     The  improvement  in  the  American  horse,  is  conspic- 
uous and  decided.     Judicious  breeders  still  look  for  qualities 
in  the  descendants,  which  they  sought  for  in  their  imported 
sires,  and  the  infusion  of  some  of  the  stoutest  of  the  blood  is 
rapidly  gaining  on  ascendancy  in  the  general  stock  ;  and  we 
are  confident  our  intelligent  agriculturists  will  not  permit  this 
to  proceed  to  an  extent,  that  may  be  prejudicial  to  their  value 
as  draught  horses,  as  has  been  done  in  some  portions  of  Eng- 
land and  our  Southern  states.  There  is  no  danger  from  excess 
of  blood  if  it  be  of  the  right  khid  ;  but  it  is  seldom  found  com- 
bining that  fulness  and  stoutness,  and  that  docility  and  tract- 
ableness  of  disposition,  which  are  essential  to  the  gig  horse  or 
the  horse  of  all  work.  Yorke  says  truly,  that  "  the  road  horse 
may  possess  different  degrees  of  blood,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  country  and  the  work  required  of  him,  [he  might  have 
added   with  propriety,  and  according  to  ilie  character  of  the 
blood.]     His  legs  will  be  too  slender  ;  his  feet  too  small ;  his 
stride  too  long,  and  he  will  rarely  be  able  to  trot.  Three  parts 
or  half,  and  for  the  horse  of  all  work,  even  less  >  than  that, 
will  make  a  good  and  useful  animal."     For  the  saddle  only, 
the  high-bred  is  never  objectionable  to  an  enterprising  and 
accomplished  rider,  if  not  diposed  to  be  vicious.     His  long 
elastic  pasterns,  giving  easy,  flexible  motions  ;  his  quick  and 
almost  electrical  obedience   when  under  thorough  discipline  ; 
his  habitual  canter  and  high  spirit,  always  commend  him  for 
this  purpose. 

P* 


870  AMERICAN    AGKICULTURE. 

Some  of -the  prominent  external  points  of  a  fine  saddle  or  gig 
Jtorse  are,  a  moderately  small  head,  free  from  fleshiness  ;  fine 
muzzle  and  e'xpansive  nostrils  ;  broad  at  the  throat  and  wide 
between  the  eyes,  which  denotes  intelligence  and  courage  ; 
a  dished  face  indicates  high  breeding,  and  sometimes,  vicious- 
ness ;  a  convex  or  Roman  nose  frequently  betokens  the 
reverse ;  the  ears  rather  long,  yet  so  finely  formed  as  to 
appear  small,  and  playing  quickly  like  those  of  a  deer  ;  and 
the  eyes  clear,  f.*ll,  and  confident,  with  a  steady  forward 
look.  Glancing  them  backward  or  askance  with  a  sinister 
expression,  nnd  with  none  or  only  a  slight  movement  of  the 
head,  is  indicative  of  a  mischievous  temper.  The  neck 
should  be  handsomely  arched,  and  fine  at  the  junction  with 
the  head,  while  the  lower  extremity  must  be  full  and  muscu- 
cular,  and  well  expanded  at  the  breast  and  shoulders.  The 
latter  ought  to  be  high  and  run  well  back;  the  withers  strong, 
firmly  knit  and  smooth  ;  the  breast  neither  loo  prominent  or 
retreating,  too  wide  or  too  narrow,  and  supported  by  a  pair  of 
straight  fore-legs,  standing  well  apart.  The  chest  should  be 
deep,  and  the  girth  large  ;  the  body  full,  and  not  drawn  up 
too  much  in  the  flank  ;  the  back  short,  and  the  hips  gath- 
ered well  towards  the  withers  ;  the  loins  wide  and  rising 
above  the  spine ;  the  ribs  springing  nearly  at  right  angles 
from  the  back,  giving  roundness  to  the  body.  The  hips 
ought  to  be  long  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  the  latter  may 
approach  to  near  the  line  of  the  back,  which  is  a  mark  of  good 
breeding.  Both  the  thigh  and  hock  should  be  large  and 
muscular ;  and  between  the  hock  or  knee  and  pastern,  the 
legs  should  be  broad,  flat,  and  short;  the  hind  legs  properly 
bent,  and  all  well  placed  under  the  body  ;  the  pasterns  of 
moderate  length,  and  standing  slightly  oblique;  the  hoof 
hi9fd,  smooth,  round  before,  and  wide  at  the  heel ;  the  frog 
large  and  sound  ;  and  the  sole  firm  and  concave.  A  white 
hof)f  is  generally  tender,  easy  to  fracture  and  to  lame,  and 
difiicult  to  hold  a  shoe.  The  draught-horse  on^'ht  to  difter 
from  the  foregoing,  in  possessing  a  heavier  and  shorter  neck, 
a  wider  and  stouter  breast  and  low  withers,  so  as  to  throwj, 
the  utmost  weight  into  the  collnr  ;  a  heavier  body  and 
quarters,  larger  legs  and  feet,  and  more  upright  shoulders 
and  pasterns. 

Considerations  v)hieh  affect  the  value  of  the  horse. — The  color 
is  not  material,  provided  it  be  not  pied  or  mealy.  No  better 
color  for  horse*  can  be  found  than  the  dark  bay  or  brown, 
with  black  mane,  tail  and  legs.    But  most  of  the  other  colors 


THE    HORSE.  371 

are  frequently  found  with  the  best  horses.     Hard-mouthed 
horses,  when  accompanied  with  great  spirits,  are  objectiona- 
ble, as  they  require  peculiar  bitting  and  the  utmost  vigilance. 
Tlie  paces  and  action  of  a  horse  are  important,  for  if  good, 
they  give  a  much  greater  capacity  for  performance.     Some 
of  these  depend  on  ibrrn  and  structure,  and  are  unchangable; 
others  are   the  result  of  breaking.     All   horses  should  be 
taught  to  walk  fast,  as  it  is  their  easiest  and  most  economical 
pace,  and  it  will  help  them  over  a  great  deal  of  ground  in  a 
day,  even  with  a  heavy  load,  and  with  comparatively  little 
eflbrt.     A  horse  that  stei>s  short  and  digs  his  toes  into  the 
ground,  is  worthless  as  a  traveller,  and  suited  only  to  a  ferry  • 
boat  or  bark  mill.     It  is  important  that  a  horse  be  good  tem- 
pered.    If  inclined  to  viciousness,  he  should  be  gently  yet 
iirmly  managed  when  it  is  first  apparent.     A  resort  to  great 
severity  will  be  justified,  if  necessary  to  conquer  him  ;  for  if 
once  allowed  to  become  a  habit,   it  will  be  difiicult  to  cure 
him.      Grooms   and  mischievous  stable-boys   frequently  do 
much   injury   by    their  idle  tricks  with   horses,   and  when 
detected,  they  should  be  discharged  at  once.     Some  horses 
are  nervous,  easily  excited,  and  start  at  every  unusual  noise 
or  object.      Others  are  restive  and  fretful  and  ever  anxious 
to  be  on  the  move.     Kindness  and  firm,  yet  mild  treatment, 
by  which  their  motions  and  will  are  at  all  times  controlled, 
and  their  confidence  secured,  are  the  only  remedies.  Others 
are  inclined  to  sluggishness.     These  should  have  stimulating 
food,  and  never  be  overloaded  or  overworked,  and  then  kept 
well  to  iheir  paces.      Whatever  they  are  capable  of  perform- 
ing, can   in   this  way  only    be  got  from  them.      Habit  has 
great  influence  with  animals,  as  with  man;  and  when  within 
the  compass  of  his  ability,  he  may  be  habituated  to  any  rea- 
sonable physical  exertion. 

Breeding. — Agreeably  to  the  general  principles  before 
enumerated,  such  animals  should  be  selected  as  most  emi- 
nently possess  those  points  which  it  is  desired  to  propagate, 
and  these  they  should  not  only  exhibit  in  themselves,  but 
should  inherit  as  far  as  possible  from  a  long  line  of  ances- 
try. For  the  perpetuation  of  particular  points  in  progeny, 
it  would  be  safer  to  rely  on  the  latter  quality  than  the  for- 
mer. The  selection  of  a  mare,  relatively  larger  than  the 
horse,  is  an  important  rule  in  breeding,  and  it  is  believed 
that  much  of  the  success  of  Arabian  and  other  Eastern  horses 
as  stock -getters,  has  resulted  from  the  application  of  this 
principle.  They  possess  valuable  traits,  but  condensed  within 


872  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE. 

too  small  a  compass.  When  such  an  animal  is  put  to  a  well- 
bred,  larger  mare,  the  fcBtus  has  abundance  of  room  and 
nourishment  to  develop  and  perfect  the  circumscribed  out- 
lines of  the  male  parent,  and  acquire  for  itself  increased 
volume  and  character.  The  horse  ought  not  to  be  less  than 
four  or  five,  and  the  mare  one  year  older  before  being  put  to 
breeding.  It  would  be  still  better  to  defer  it  for  two  or  three 
years,  or  till  the  frame  is  fully  matured. 

The  gestaticni  of  the  mare  sometimes  varies  from  44  to  56 
weeks,  but  she  usually  goes  with  young  from  47  to  50;  and 
it  is  advisable  she  should  take  the  horse  al  a  time,  which  will 
ensure  the  foaling  when  the  weather  is  settled,  and  there  is 
a  fresh  growth  of  grass.  She  will  be  the  heller  for  light 
working  till  near  the  time  of  foaling,  if  well,  but  not  too 
abundantly  fed.  In  a  few  days  afier  this,  she  may  resume 
moderate  labor;  and  if  not  in  the  way  or  troublesome,  the 
foal  may  run  with  her  ;  but  if  she  is  exposed  to  heating,  it 
should  be  confined  till  she  cools,  as  suckling  them  is  deci- 
dedly injurious  lo  it.  The  mare  is  in  danger  of  slinking  her 
foal  from  blows  and  over  exertion,  the  use  of  smutty  grain, 
foul  hay,  or  ofiensive  objects  or  smell ;  and  when  this  has 
once  occurred,  which  happens  usually  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
month,  she  should  afterwards  be  generously  fed  at  that 
period,  and  only  moderately  worked.  When  liable  to  slink- 
ing, the  mare  should  be  removed  from  others  in  foal,  lest  a 
peculiar  sympathy  should  excite  an  epidemic.  The  mare 
comes  in  heat  from  nine  to  eleven  days  after  foaling,  when 
she  should  he  put  to  the  horse,  if  it  be  desirable  to  have  a 
colt  the  following  season.  She  comes  round  at  intervals  of 
about  nine  days  each. 

Management  of  ilie  colt. — The  colt  maybe  weaned  when 
five  to  seven  months  old,  and  preparatory  to  this,  while  with 
the  mare,  may  be  taught  to  feed  on  fine  hay,  meal  or  oats. 
When  taken  away,  he  should  be  confined  beyond  a  hearing 
distance  of  the  dam,  and  plentifully  supplied  with  rowen  or 
aftermath  hay,  mashed  or  ground  oals,  or  wheat  shorts.  It 
is  economy  to  |)rovidea  warm  shelter  through  the  inclement 
season  for  all  animals,  and  especially  for  colts,  which  with 
all  other  young,  should  have  an  abundance  of  nutritious 
food.  They  will  thus  grow  evenly  and  rapidly,  and  attain 
a  size  and  stamina  at  two  years  old,  they  would  not  other- 
wise have  acquired  at  three. 

Castrating. — The  colt  should  be  altered  at  about  one  year, 
but  if  thin  in  the  neck  and  light  before,  the  operation  may 


THE    HORSE.  373 

be  deferred  to  such  time  as  these  requisite  developments  are 
secured.  Few  of  the  French  diligence  and  farm  horses,  and 
scarcely  any  of  the  Oriental,  are  ever  castrated.  They  are 
thought  to  be  more  hardy  and  enduring;  but  the  slight  advan- 
tage they  may  possibly  possess  in  this  respect,  would  illy 
compensate  for  the  trouble  and  inconvenience  arising  from 
their  management.  The  operation  should  be  performed 
late  in  the  spring  or  early  in  autumn,  while  the  weather  is 
mild.  If  in  high  condition,  the  animal  must  first  be  bled  and 
physiced.  If  large  and  fractious,  he  must  be  cast.  Some 
back  him  into  the  angle  of  a  worm  fence,  where  he  is  firmly 
held  by  the  head  with  a  bridle^  and  the  operator  accom- 
plishes the  object,  without  any  trouble  or  material  restiveness 
from  the  animal  while  standing.  The  scrotum  should  be 
opened  on  both  sides  and  the  testicles  cut,  or  rather  the  cord 
scraped  off,  which  prevents  as  much  bleeding.  The  wound 
may  be  dressed  with  a  little  lard  ;  then  turn  him  loose  in  a 
pasture  which  has  a  shelter  from  sun,  wind  or  rain.  Another 
method  of  castrating  is  by  torsion  or  twisting.  Docking  is 
practised  by  many,  but  merely  to  gratify  an  absurd  and 
cruel  caprice,  without  a  single  advantage,  and  the  animal  is 
better  in  every  respect  with  the  tail  unmutilated.  If  done 
at  all,  it  should  be  when  young,  and  with  a  single  stroke  of 
the  knife,  or  chisel  and  mallet;  and  if  the  weather  be  favora- 
ble, no  further  attention  is  necessary.  NicJcing. — This  in- 
human custom  is  now  getting  unfashionable,  and  we  omit 
any  description  of  it. 

Breakino  — While  feeding  in  the  stable,  the  colt  should 
be  gently  treated,  and  accustomed  to  the  halter  and  bit, 
which  prepares  him  for  breaking.  If  permitted  to  run  with 
the  others  while  at  work,  he  becomes  familiarized  to  it,  and 
when  harnessed  by  the  side  of  some  of  his  well-trained 
mates,  he  considers  his  discipline  rather  a  privilege  than  a 
task.  The  colt  may  be  taken  in  hand  for  breaking  at  three, 
and  thoroughly  broken  to  light  work  at  four,  but  should  not 
be  put  to  hard  service  till  six  or  eight.  A  due  regard  to 
humanity  and  sound  judgment,  in  thus  limiting  the  burthen 
in  his  early  years,  would  save  much  disease  and  suffering  to 
the  animal  and  profit  the  owner,  by  his  unimpaired  strength 
and  prolonged  lit^e.  The  annual  loi^s  from  neglecting  this 
precaution  is  enormous,  which  might  be  entirely  avoided,  by 
less  eagerness  to  grasp  the  substance,  while  as  yet  the  shadow 
only  is  within  reach.  Many  animals  are  thus  broken  down 
at  twelve,  and  are  in  their  dotage  at  fifteen,  while  others  of 


374  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

good  constitution,   it'  well  treated,  perform  hard  service  till 
thirty. 

Longevity  of  tJw  Imse. — Mr.  Percival  mentions  one  that 
died  at  62.  Mr.  Mauran  of  New-York,  has  a  fine  gig  and 
saddle  horse,  now  in  his  45th  year,  sound,  spirited  and  play- 
ful as  a  kitten.  He  is  of  a  dark  brown  with  a  tanned  nose. 
We  never  yet  saw  a  horse  with  a  buffer  bear  muzzle,  that 
had  not  great  endurance.  American  Eclipse  is  still  success- 
fully covering  mares  in  Kentucky  at  the  age  of  31,  the  result 
of  late  and  light  service  till  his  sinews  became  fully  matured. 
We  almost  daily  see  a  large,  compact,  flea-bitten  horse,  at 
work,  dragging  a  heavy  load  in  a  single  cart,  which  was  for- 
merly used  as  one  of  Governor  Maitland's  coach  horses,  and 
though  now  upwards  of  30,  is  apparently  as  sound  and  vigor- 
ous as  an  overtasked  colt  of  seven  or  eight. 

Feeding. — The  vigor  and  duration  of  the  horse  depend 
much  on  proper  feeding.  Like  the  cow  and  sheep,  he  may 
be  made  to  subsist  on  animal  food,  fish  and  almost  every  spe- 
cies of  nutritiou.-i  vegetable.  But  his  natural  and  proper 
aliment  is  the  grasses,  grain  and  roots.  In  the  middle  and 
northern  section  of  this  country,  his  dry  forage  is  almost 
invariably  good  meadow  hay,  generally  timothy,  whicli  is 
the  richest  of  the  cultivated  grasses.  At  the  South,  this  is 
often  supplied  by  the  blades  of  Indian  corn.  But  in  all  the 
states,  a  great  variety  of  the  grasses  and  clover  are  used. 
When  put  to  hard  labor,  grain  ought  always  to  accompany 
hay  in  some  form.  Of  the  different  kinds  of  grain,  oats  are 
peculiarly  the  horse's  food,  and  they  are  always  safe,  digesti- 
ble and  nutritive.  Barley  is  tiie  best  substitute  for  it.  W  heat 
and  Indian  corn  are  sometimes  given,  but  both  are  unsuita- 
ble; the  first  is  too  concentrated,  and  the  last  too  healing. 
They  ought  to  be  sparingly  used,  and  only  when  ground. 
The  offal  of  wheat  is  never  objectionable.  Grain  is  always 
more  advantageously  fed  when  ground  or  cru.>hed,  and  wet 
some  time  previous  to  eating;  and  it  is  still  better  when 
cooked.  (3n  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  Bar- 
bary  states,  in  Spain,  France  and  Italy,  much  of  the  food  i^ 
given  in  small  baked  cakes,  and  the  saving  in  this  way  is 
much  greater  than  the  expense  of  preparing  it.  When  con- 
fined to  dry  food,  roots  or  apples  fed  once  a  day,  are  always 
beneficial.  They  keep  the  bowels  open,  the  appetite  and 
general  health  good,  and  contribute  largely  to  the  nutriment 
of  the  animal.  Carrots  are  the  best  of  the  roots,  as  besides 
giving  muscle  and  working  power,   they  more   than   any 


DISEASES    OF    HORSES.  375 

other,  improve  the  wind  and  remove  all  tendency  to  heaves. 
They  have  even  been  found  ellectual  in  curing  an  obstinate 
cough.  By  many  of  the  keepers  of  livery  stables,  they  are 
always  used,  for  which  purpose  they  command  the  same 
price  as  oats.  Potatoes,  parsneps,  beets  and  Swedes  turneps 
in  the  order  mentioned,  are  next  to  be  preferred.  Potatoes 
are  improved  by  cooking.  Mixtures  of  food  are  best,  as  of 
cut  hay,  meal  and  roots.  Old  horses,  or  such  as  are  put  to 
hard  labor,  will  do  much  better  if  their  food  be  given  in  the 
form  easiest  of  digestion.  No  inconsiderable  part  of  the 
vital  power  is  exhausted  by  the  digestion  of  dry,  raw  food. 
Horses  ought  to  be  fed,  and  if  possible,  exercised  or  worked 
regularly,  but  never  on  a  full  stomach.  This  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  disease,  and  especially  of  broken  wind.  If  their 
food  is  given  at  the  proper  time,  and  the  horse  be  allowed  to 
finish  it  at  once,  without  expecting  more,  he  will  lie  down 
quietly  and  digest  it.  This  will  be  much  more  refreshing  to 
him,  than  to  stand  at  the  rack  or  trough,  nibbling  continu- 
ally at  his  hay  or  oats.  What  remains  after  he  has  done 
feeding,  should  be  at  once  withdrawn.  They  should  have 
water  in  summer  three  times,  and  in  winter  twice  a  day. 
Soft  or  running  water  is  much  the  best.  While  working, 
and  they  are  not  too  warm,  they  may  have  it  as  often  as 
they  desire.  Neither  should  they  be  fed  when  heated,  as 
the  stomach  is  then  fatigued  and  slightly  inflamed,  and  is 
not  prepared  for  digestion  till  the  animal  is  again  cool.  Salt 
should  always  be  within  reach,  and  we  have  found  an  occa- 
sional handful  of  clean  wood  ashes,  a  preventive  of  disease 
and  an  assistance  to  the  bowels  and  appetite. 

DISEASES. 

The  list  is  long  and  fearful,  and  even  the  brief  one  subjoined, 
will  be  found  sufficiently  great,  to  inculcate  the  utmost  caution 
in  their  management.  The  horse  in  his  natural  condition  is 
subject  to  few  ailments.  It  is  only  in  his  intensely  artificial 
state,  and  when  made  the  slave  of  man,  that  he  becomes  a 
prey  to  disease  in  almost  every  shape.  A  careful  and  judi- 
cious attention  to  his  diet,  water,  exercise,  stable,  and  gene- 
ral management,  will  prevent  many  of  those  to  which  he  is 
subject. 

Glanders  is  one  of  the  most  alarming.  The  first  and  most 
marked  symptom  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  of  a  pecu- 
liar character.  The  disease  produces  inflammation  there, 
and  in  the  windpipe,  and  finally,  in  aggravated  cases,  passes 


3  76  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

down  to  the  lungs,  which  are  soon  destroyed.  It  is  propaga- 
ted by  contagion,  by  exposure  in  humid  stables,  and  is  indu- 
ced by  hereditary  indisposition  and  great  exhaustion.  Youatt 
says,  there  is  not  a  disease  which  may  not  lay  the  founda- 
tion for  glanders.  The  poison  resides  in  the  nasal  discharge, 
not  in  the  breath.  When  exposed  to  it,  the  mangers  should 
be  thoroughly  scraped,  washed  with  soap  and  water,  and 
afterwards  with  chloride  of  lime.  All  the  clothing  and  har- 
ness which  may  have  received  any  of  the  contagious  matter, 
must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  baked.  The  best  preven- 
tives are  dry,  clean  and  well  ventilated  stables,  proper  exer- 
cise, and  green  food  in  summer,  and  roots  in  winter.  The 
disease  may  be  arrested  in  its  early  stages,  by  turning  the 
animal  on  a  dry  pasture,  but  it  is  liable  to  return  on  subse- 
quent confinement.  Iodine  has  lately  been  announced  as  a 
remedy,  but  of  the  certainty  of  its  effects,  we  are  not  aware. 
It  is  generally  considered  incurable,  and  when  thoroughly 
seated,  it  may  be  deemed  an  act  both  of  humanity  and 
economy,  to  terminate  the  existence  of  its  victim  at  once. 
This  course  becomes  a  duty,  from  the  fact  that  many  grooms, 
by  their  attendance  on  glandered  horses,  have  been  affected, 
and  though  the  disease  is  in  their  case  more  managable,  yet 
it  is  frequently  fatal.  Farcy  is  intimately  connected  with 
glanders,  and  the  diseases  frequently  run  into  each  other. 

Lampas  consist  in  the  swelling  of  the  bars  of  the  mouth  to 
a  level  or  even  above  the  teeth.  It  may  occur  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  gums  ;  shedding  of  the  teeth  ;  a  febrile  tendency, 
and  from  over  feeding  or  want  of  exercise.  It  will  generally 
subside  by  low  dieting  and  proper  exercise  ;  or  it  may  be  at 
once  relieved,  by  lancing  the  bars  with  a  sharp  pen-knife. 

PoLL-EviL  arises  from  some  contusion  or  injury  to  the  head, 
which  produces  a  swelling  that  eventually  suppurates.  The 
inflammation  may  be  abated  in  its  earliest  stages,  by  a  blister, 
and  later,  l)y  bleeding,  physic,  and  cold  lotions  applied  to  the 
part.  If  these  are  ineffectual,  and  the  swelling  continues, 
it  should  be  hastened  by  poultices,  and  warm,  stimulating 
lotions ;  and  when  fully  formed,  the  tumor  must  be  opened,  i* 
so  as  to  p(^rmit  all  the;  matter  to  run  out.  Repeated  applica-  ■ 
tions  of  salt  will  sometimes  cure  it. 

Heaves.— rAll  those  affections,  distinguished  in  the  Eng- 
lish  veterinary  works,  as  pnuemmia  or  inflammation  of  the 
lungs f  chronic  cough,  thick  and  broken  wind,  consumption^  <^c., 
are  popularly  designated  as  heaves.  To  some  or  all  of  these 
the  horse  may  have  an  hereditary  or  constitutional  tendency. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  377 

Their  incipient  stages  are  also  induced  by  a  sudden  transition 
from  heat  to  cold,  and  sometimes  from  cold  to  close  and  hot 
stables ;  and  by  a  chilly  wind  or  damp  stables,  especially  after 
severe  exercise.  Feedinnj  on  musty,  dry  hay,  or  on  straw, 
will  produce  an  irritation  which  may  lead  to  heaves.  Injlam- 
motion  of  the  lungs  is  frequently  dangerous,  and  requires  the 
immediate  and  full  use  of  the  lancet.  After  the  inflammation 
is  decidedly  allayed  by  copious  bleeding,  small  doses  of  aloes 
may  be  given,  and  frequent  injections  of  warm  soap  and 
water,  which  should  be  omitted  the  moment  the  fwces  be- 
comes soft  and  approaching  to  the  fluid  state.  Blistering 
the  sides  and  brisket,  and  often  repeated  if  otherwise  ineflfec- 
tual,  must  be  resorted  to.  Convalescence  should  be  followed 
wMth  sedative  medicines,  and  during  all  the  severe  stages  of 
the  disease,  withhold  all  food  except  light  gruels  after  pro- 
tracted abstinence.  As  health  returns,  put  the  animal  out  to 
grass.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  sometimes  succeeded  by 
a  chronic  cough,  and  the  other  maladies  enumerated.  When 
firmly  seated,  it  is  incapable  of  removal.  Its  effects  can  be 
alleviated,  and  with  suitable  food  and  treatment,  the  horse 
may  be  made  fo  do  much  moderate  labor  for  many  years,  but 
he  can  never  become  sound  or  sustain  great  exertion.  Equal 
and  proper  temperature,  moist,  stimulating  food,  and  espe- 
cially carrots  or  potatoes,  and  moderate  exercise,  but  never 
on  a  full  stomach,  and  dry,  clean  stables,  are  all  the  remedies 
that  can  be  prescribed. 

Catarrh  or  horse  distemper  sometimes  attacks  the 
horse  in  the  spring  or  fall,  and  is  shown  by  soreness  and 
swelling  in  the  glands  of  the  throat,  a  cough,  difficulty  of 
swallowing,  discharging  at  the  nose,  and  general  prostration. 
It  is  seldom  fatal  if  properly  managed.  (Jive  light  bran- 
mashes,  purge  thoroughly,  and  keep  warm.  .  If  he  is  violently 
attacked,  he  may  be  bled  while  fever  exists,  and  blisters  or 
seatons  may  be  applied,  to  reduce  the  swelling  if  extreme. 
The  disease  is  contagious,  and  the  animal  should  be  at  once 
placed  where  he  cannot  communicate  it. 

Spas3iodic  Colic. — "  The  attack  of  colic  is  usually  very 
sudden.  There  is  often  not  the  slightest  warning.  The 
horse  begins  to  shift  his  posture,  look  round  at  his  flanks,  paw 
violently,  strike  his  belly  with  his  feet,  and  crouch  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner,  advancing  his  hind  limbs  under  him  ;  he  will 
then  suddenly  lie,  or  rather  fall  down,  and  balance  himself 
upon  his  back,  with  his  feet  resting  on  his  belly.  The  pain 
now  seems  to  cease  for  a  little  while,  and  he  gets  up,  and 


378  AMERICAN   AGHICULTrRE. 

shakes  himself,  and  begins  to  feed ;  the  respite,  however,  is 
but  short — the  spasm  returns  more  violently — every  indica- 
tion of  pain  is  increased — he  heaves  at  the  flanks,  breaks  out 
into  a  profuse  perspiration,  and  throws  himself  more  reck- 
lessly about.  In  the  space  of  an  hour  or  two,  either  the 
spasms  begin  to  relax,  and  the  remissions  are  of  longer  dura- 
tion, or  the  torture  is  augmented  at  every  paroxysm ;  the 
intervals  of  ease  are  fewer  and  less  marked,  and  inflamma- 
tion and  death  supervene.  The  pulse  is  but  little  affected  at 
the  commencement,  but  it  soon  becomes  frequent  and  contrac 
ted,  and  at  length  is  scarcely  tangible. 

Among  tlie  causes  of  colic  are,  the  drinking  of  cold  water 
when  the  horse  is  heated.  There  is  not  a  surer  origin  of 
violent  spasm  than  this.  Hard  water  is  very  apt  to  produce 
this  effect.  Colic  will  sometimes  follow  the  exposure  of  a 
horse  to  the  cold  air  or  a  cold  wind  after  strong  exercise. 
Green  meat,  although,  generally  speaking,  most  beneficial  to 
the  horse,  yet,  given  in  too  large  a  quantity,  or  when  he  is 
hot,  will  frequently  produce  gripes.  Doses  of  aloes,  both 
large  and  small,  are  not  unfrequent  causes  of  colic.  In  some 
horses  there  seems  to  be  a  constitutional  predisposition  to 
colic.  They  cannot  be  hardly  worked,  or  exposed  to  unusual 
cold,  without  a  fit  of  it.  In  many  cases,  when  these  horses 
have  died,  calculi  have  been  found  in  some  part  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal.  Habitual  costiveness  and  the  presence  of 
calculi  are  frequent  causes  of  spasmodic  colic.  The  seat  of 
colic  is  occasionally  the  duodenum,  but  oftener  the  ileum  or 
the  jejunum ;  sometimes,  however,  both  the  caecum  and 
colon  are  affected.  Fortunately,  we  are  acquainted  with 
several  medicines  that  allay  these  spasms ;  and  the  disease 
often  ceases  as  suddenly  as  it  appeared.  Turpentine  is  one  of 
the  most  powerfid  remedies,  especially  in  union  with  opium, 
and  in  good  warm  ale.  A  solution  of  aloes  will  be  advanta- 
geously added  to  the  turpentine  and  opium.  If  relief  is  not 
obtained  in  half-an-hour,  it  will  be  prudent  to  bleed,  for  the 
continuancfi  of  violent  spasm  may  produce  inflammation. 
Some  practitioners  bleed  at  first,  and  it  is  far  from  bad  prac-* 
tice  ;  ibr  although  the  majority  of  cases  will  yield  to  turpen-: 
tine,  opium,  and  aloes,  an  early  bleeding  may  occasionally 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  inflammation,  or  at  least  mitigate 
it.  If  it  is  clearly  a  case  of  colic,  half  of  the  first  dose  may 
be  repeated,  with  aloes  dissolved  in  warm  water.  The  stim- 
ulus produced  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  bowels  by  the  pur- 
gative may  counteract  the  irritation  that  caused  the  spasm. 


DISEASES    or   HORSES.  370 

The  belly  should  be  well  rubbed  with  a  brush  or  warm  cloth, 
but  not  bruised  and  injured  by  the  broom-handle  rubbed  over 
it,  with  all  their  strength,  by  two  great  fellows.  The  horse 
should  be  walked  about,  or  trotted  moderately.  The  motion 
thus  produced  in  the  bowels,  and  the  friction  of  one  intestine 
over  the  other,  may  relax  the  spasm,  but  the  hasty  gallop 
might  speedily  cause  inflammation  to  succeed  to  colic.  Clys- 
ters of  warm  water,  or  containing  a  solution  of  aloes,  should 
be  injected.  The  patent  syringe  will  here  be  exceedingly 
useful.  A  clyster  of  tobacco-smoke  may  be  thrown  up  as  a 
last  resort.  When  relief  has  been  obtained,  the  clothing  of 
the  horse,  saturated  with  perspiration,  should  be  removed, 
and  fresh  and  dry  clothes  substituted.  He  should  be  well 
littered  down  in  a  warm  stable  or  box,  and  have  bran  mashes 
and  lukewarm  water  for  the  two  or  three  next  days.  Some 
persons  give  gin,  or  gin  and  pepper,  or  even  spirit  of  pimento, 
in  cases  of  gripes.  This  course  of  proceeding  is,  however, 
exceedingly  objectionable.  It  may  be  useful,  or  even  suffi- 
cient, in  ordinary  cases  of  colic  ;  but  if  there  shoidd  be  any 
inflammation  or  tendency  to  inflammation,  it  cannot  fail  to  be 
highly  injurious. 

Flatulent  roLir. — This  is  altogether  a  different  disease 
from  the  former.  It  is  not  spasm  of  the  bowels,  but  inflation  of 
them  from  the  presence  of  gas  emitted  by  undigested  food. 
Whether  collected  in  the  stomach,  or  small  or  large  intestines, 
all  kinds  of  vegetable  matter  are  liable  to  ferment.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  fermentation,  gas  is  evolved  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent — perhaps  to  twenty  or  thirty  times  the  bulk  of  the 
food.  This  may  take  place  in  the  stomach  ;  and  if  so,  the 
life  of  the  horse  is  in  immediate  danger,  for  the  animal  has 
no  power  to  expel  this  dangerous  flatus  by  eructation. 

The  symptoms,  according  to  Professor  Stewart,  are,  "the 
horse  suddenly  slackening  his  pace — preparing  to  lie  down, 
or  falling  down  as  if  he  were  shot.  In  the  stable  he  paws 
the  ground  with  his  fore  feet,  lies  down,  rolls,  starts  up  all  at 
once,  and  throws  himself  down  again  with  great  violence, 
looking  wistfully  at  his  flanks,  and  making  many  fruitless 
attempts  to  void  his  urine."  The  treatment  is  considerably 
diflferent  from  that  of  spasmodic  colic.  The  spirit  of  pimento 
would  be  here  allowed,  or  the  turpentine  and  opium  drink  ; 
but  if  the  pain,  and  especially  the  swelling,  do  not  abate,  the 
gas,  which  is  the  cause  of  it,  must  be  got  rid  of,  or  the  ani- 
mal is  inevitably  lost.  This  is  usually  or  almost  invariably 
a  combination  of  h3-drogen  with  some  other  gas.     It  has  a 


380  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

strong  affinity  for  chlorine.  Then  if  some  compound  of 
chlorine — the  chloride  of  lime — dissolved  in  water,  is  admin- 
istered in  the  form  of  a  drink,  the  chlorine  separates  from  the 
lime  as  soon  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  hydrogen,  and 
muriatic  gas  is  formed.  This  gas  having  a  strong  affinity 
for  water,  is  absorbed  by  any  fluid  that  may  be  present,  and, 
quitting  its  gaseous  form,  either  disappears,  or  does  not  retain 
a  thousandth  part  of  its  former  bulk.  All  this  may  be  very 
rapidly  accomplished,  for  the  fluid  is  quickly  conveyed  from 
the  mouth  to  every  part  of  the  intestinal  canal.  Where  these 
two  medicines  are  not  at  hand,  and  the  danger  is  imminent, 
the  trochar  may  be  used,  in  order  to  open  a  way  for  the 
escape  of  the  gas.  The  trochar  should  be  small  but  longer 
than  that  which  is  used  for  the  cow,  and  the  puncture  should 
be  made  in  the  middle  of  the  right  flank,  for  there  the  large 
intestines  are  most  easily  reached.  It  is  only  when  the  prac- 
titioner despairs  of  otherwise  saving  the  life  of  the  animal 
that  this  operation  should  be  attempted.  Much  of  the  danger 
would  be  avoided  by  using  a  very  small  trochar,  and  by  with- 
drawing it  as  soon  as  the  gas  has  escaped.  The  wonnd  in 
the  intestines  will  then  probably  close,  from  the  innate  elasti- 
city of  the  parts. 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels. — There  are  two  varieties  of 
this  malady.  The  first  is  inflammation  of  the  external  coats 
of  the  intestines,  accompanied  by  considerable  fever,  and 
usually  costiveness.  The  second  is  that  of  the  internal  or 
mucous  coat,  and  almost  invariably  connected  with  purging. 
The  muscular  coat  is  that  which  is  oftenest  affected.  Inflam- 
mation of  the  external  coats  of  the  stomach,  whether  the 
peritoneal  or  muscular,  or  both,  is  a  very  frequent  and  fatal 
disease.  It  speedily  runs  its  course,  and  it  is  of  great  conse- 
quemce  that  its  early  symptoms  should  be  known.  If  the 
horse  has  been  carefully  observed,  restlessness  and  fever  will 
have  been  seen  to  precede  the  attack.  In  many  cases  a 
direct  shivering  fit  will  occur :  the  mouth  will  be  hot,  and  the 
nose  red.  The  animal  will  soon  express  the  most  dreadful  ^ 
pain  by  pawing,  striking  at  his  belly,  looking  wildly  at  his  " 
flanks,  groaning,  and  rolling.  The  pulse  will  be  quickened 
and  small ;  the  ears  and  legs  cold ;  the  belly  tender,  and 
sometimes  hot;  the  breathing  quickened;  the  bowels  costive; 
and  the  animal  becoming  rapidly  and  tearfully  weak. 

The  causes  of  this  disease  are,  first  of  all  and  most  fre- 
quently, sudden  exposure  to  cold.  If  a  horse  that  has  been 
highly  fed,  carefully  groomed,  and  kept  in  a  warm  stable,  is 


DISEASES    OF    HORSES.  381 

heated  with  exercise,  and  has  been  during  some  hours  without 
food,  and  in  this  state  of  exhaustion  is  suffered  to  drink  freely 
of  cold  water,  or  is  drenched  with  rain,  or  have  his  legs  and 
belly  washed  with  cold  water,  an  attack  of  inliamniation  of 
the  bowels  will  often  follow.  An  overfed  horse,  subjected  to 
severe  and  long-continued  exertion,  if  his  lungs  were  previ- 
ously weak,  will  pro])ably  be  attacked  by  inflammation  of 
them  ;  but  if  the  lungs  were  sound,  the  bowels  will  on  the 
Ibllowing  day  be  the  seat  of  disease.  Stones  in  the  intes- 
tines are  an  occasional  cause  of  inflammation,  and  colic 
neglected  or  wrongly  treated  will  terminate  in  it. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  like  that  of 
the  lungs,  should  Ijc  prompt  and  energetic.  The  first  and 
most  powerful  means  of  cure  will  be  bleeding.  From  six  to 
eight  or  ten  quarts  of  blood,  in  fact  as  much  as  the  horse  can 
bear,  should  be  abstracted  as  soon  as  possible ;  and  the  bleed- 
ing repeated  to  the  extent  of  four  or  five  quarts  more,  if  the 
pain  is  not  relieved  and  the  pulse  has  not  become  rounder 
and  fuller.  The  speedy  weakness  that  accompanies  this 
disease  should  not  deter  from  bleeding  largely.  That  weak- 
ness is  the  consequence  of  violent  inflammation  of  these 
parts ;  and  if  that  inflammation  is  subdued  by  the  loss  of 
blood,  the  weakness  will  disappear.  The  bleeding  should  be 
etlected  on  the  fii  st  appearance  of  the  disease,  for  there  is  no 
malady  tliat  more  quickly  runs  its  course.  A  strong  solution 
of  aloes  should  immediately  follow  the  bleeding,  but,  consid- 
ering the  irritable  state  of  the  intestines  at  this  period,  guar- 
ded by  opium.  This  should  be  quickly  followed  by  back- 
raking,  and  injections  consisting  of  warm  water,  or  very  thin 
gruel,  in  which  Epsom  salts  or  aloes  have  been  dissolved  ; 
and  too  much  fluid  can  scarcely  be  thrown  up.  The  horse 
should  likewise  be  encouraged  to  drink  plentifully  of  warm 
water  or  thin  gruel ;  and  draughts,  each  containing  a  couple 
of  drachms  of  dissolved  aloes,  with  a  little  opium,  should  be 
given  every  six  hours,  until  the  bowels  are  freely  opened.  It 
will  now  be  prudent  to  endeavor  to  excite  considerable  exter- 
nal inflammation  as  near  as  possible  to  the  seat  of  internal 
disease,  and  therefore  the  whole  of  the  belly  should  be  blis- 
tered. In  a  well-njarked  case  of  this  disease,  no  time  should 
be  lost  in  applying  fomentations,  but  the  blister  at  once  resor- 
ted to.  The  tincture  of  Spanish  flies,  whether  made  with 
spirits  of  wine  or  turpentine,  should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  in. 
The  legs  should  be  well  bandaged  in  order  to  restore  the  cir- 
culation in  them,  and  thus  lessen  the  flow  of  blood  to  the 


382  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

inflamed  part;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  the  horse  should  be 
warmly  clothed,  but  the  air  of  the  stable  or  box  should  be 
cool.  No  corn  or  hay  should  be  allowed  during  the  disease, 
but  bran  mashes,  and  green  meat  if  it  can  be  procured.  The 
latter  will  be  the  best  of  all  food,  and  may  be  given  without 
the  slightest  apprehension  of  danger.  When  the  horse 
begins  to  recover,  a  handful  of  grain  may  be  given  two  or  three 
times  in  the  day;  and,  if  the  weather  is  warm,  he  may  be 
turned  into  a  paddock  for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle  of  the 
day.  Clysters  of  gruel  should  be  continued  for  tJiree  or  four 
days  after  the  inflammation  is  beginning  to  subside,  and  good 
hand-rubbing  applied  to  the  legs. 

The  second  variety  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels  affects 
the  internal  or  mucous  coat,  and  is  generally  the  consequence 
of  physic  in  too  great  quantity,  or  of  an  improper  kind.  The 
purging  is  more  violent  and  continues  longer  than  was  inten- 
ded ;  the  animal  shows  that  he  is  suffering  great  pain ;  he 
frequently  looks  round  at  his  flanks;  his  breathing  is  labori- 
ous, and  the  pulse  is  quick  and  small,  and  the  mouth  is  hot 
and  the  legs  and  ears  are  warm.  Unless  the  purging  is 
excessive,  and  the  pain  and  distress  great,  the  surgeon  should 
hesitate  at  giving  any  astringent  medicine  at  first;  but  he 
should  plentifully  administer  gruel  or  thin  starch,  or  arrow- 
root, by  the  mouth  and  by  clyster,  removing  all  hay  and  corn, 
and  particularly  green  meat.  He  should  thus  endeavor  to 
soothe  the  irritated  surface  of  the  bowels,  while  he  permits 
all  remains  of  the  purgative  to  be  carried  off".  If,  however, 
twelve  hours  have  passed,  and  the  j)urging  and  the  pain 
remain  undiminished,  he  should  continue  the  gruel,  adding 
to  it  chalk,  catechu,  and  opium,  repeated  every  six  hours. 
As  soon  as  the  purging  begins  to  subside,  the  astringent  med- 
icihe  should  be  lessened  in  quantity,  and  gradually  discon- 
tinued.  Bleeding  will  rarely  be  necessary,  unless  the  inflam- 
mation is  very  great,  and  attended  by  symptoms  of  general 
fever.  The  horse  should  be  warmly  clothed,  and  placed  in 
a  comfortable  stable,  and  his  Tegs  should  be  hand-rubbed  and  . 
bandaged.  Violent  purging,  and  attended  with  much  inflam- ■ 
mation  and  lever,  will  occur  from  other  causes.  Green  meat 
will  frequently  purge.  A  horse  worked  hard  upon  green  meat 
will  sometimes  scour.  The  remedy  is  change  of  diet,  or  less 
labor.  Young  horses  will  often  be  strongly  purged,  without 
any  .ipparent  cause.  Astringents  should  be  used  with  much 
caution  here.  It  is  probably  an  effort  of  nature  to  get  rid  of 
something  that  offends.     A  few  doses  of  gruel  will  assist  in 


DISEASES   OF   HORSES.  383 

efl'ectiRg  this  purpose,  and  the  purging  will  cease  without 
astringent  medicine.  Many  horses  that  are  not  well  ribbed 
home — having  too  great  space  between  the  last  rib  and  the 
hip-bone — are  subject  to  purging  if  more  than  usual  exertion 
is  required  from  them.  They  are  recognised  by  the  term  of 
tcashy  horses.  They  are  often  free  and  fleet,  but  destitute  of 
continuance.  They  should  have  rather  more  than  the  usual 
allowance  of  corn,  with  beans,  when  at  work.  A  cordial 
ball,  with  catechu  and  opium,  will  often  be  serviceable  either 
before  or  after  a  journey. 

Physicking. — When  a  horse  comes  from  grass  to  hard 
meat,  or  from  the  cool,  open  air  to  a  heated  stable,  a  dose 
or  even  two  doses  of  physic  may  be  useful  to  prevent  the 
tendency  to  inflammation  which  is  the  necessary  consequence 
of  so  sudden  and  great  a  change.  To  a  horse  that  is  becom- 
ing too  fat,  or  has  surfeit,  or  grease,  or  mange,  or  that  is  out 
of  condition  from  inactivity  of  the  digestive  organs,  a  dose  of 
physic  is  often  most  serviceable.  A  horse  should  be  care- 
fully prepared  for  the  action  of  physic.  Two  or  three  bran 
mashes  given  on  that  or  the  preceding  day  are  far  from  suffi- 
cient when  a  horse  is  about  to  be  physicked,  whether  to  pro- 
mote his  condition  or  in  obedience  to  custom.  Mashes  should 
be  given  until  the  dung  becomes  softened.  A  less  quantity 
of  physic  will  then  suffice,  and  it  will  more  quickly  pass 
through  the  intestines,  and  be  more  readily  diffiised  over  them. 
Five  drachms  of  aloes,  given  when  the  dung  has  thus  been 
softened,  will  act  more  effectually  and  much  more  safely  than 
seven  drachms,  when  the  lower  intestines  are  obstructed  by 
hardened  faeces.  On  the  day  on  which  the  physic  is  given, 
the  horse  should  have  walking  exercise,  or  may  be  gently 
trotted  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  twice  in  the  day;  but  after 
the  physic  begins  to  work,  he  should  not  be  moved  from  his 
stall.  Exercise  would  then  produce  gripes,  irritation,  and, 
possibly,  dangerous  inflammation.  A  little  hay  may  be  put 
into  the  rack.  As  much  mash  should  be  given  as  the  horse 
will  eat,  and  as  much  water,  with  the  coldness  of  it  taken  ofl^, 
as  he  will  drink.  If,  however,  he  obstinately  refuses  to  drink 
warm  water,  it  is  better  that  he  should  have  it  cold,  than  to 
continue  without  taking  any  fluid;  but  in  such  case  he  should 
not  be  suffered  to  take  more  than  a  quart  at  a  time,  with  an 
interval  of  at  least  an  hour  between  each  draught.  When 
the  purging  has  ceased,  or  the  physic  is  self  a  mash  should  be 
given  once  or  twice  every  day  until  the  next  dose  is  taken, 
between  which  and  the  setting  of  the  first  there  should  be  an. 


384  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

interval  of  a  week.  The  horse  should  recover  from  the  lan- 
guor and  debility  occasioned  by  the  first  dose,  before  he  is 
harrassed  by  a  second.  Eight  or  ten  tolerably  copious 
motions  will  be  perfectly  sufficient  to  answer  every  good 
purpose,  although  the  groom  or  the  carter  may  not  be  satisfied 
unless  double  the  quantity  are  procured.  The  consequence 
of  too  strong  purgation  will  be,  that  weakness  will  hang  about 
the  animal  for  several  days  or  weeks,  and  inflammation  will 
often  ensue  from  the  over-irritation  of  the  intestinal  canal. 
Long-continued  custom  has  made  aloes  the  almost  invariable 
purgative  of  the  horse,  and  very  pro})er]y  so ;  for  there  is  no 
other  at  once  so  sure  and  so  safe.  The  Barbadoes  aloes, 
although  sometimes  very  dear,  should  alone  be  used.  The 
dose,  with  a  horse  properly  prepared,  will  vary  from  four  to» 
seven  drachms.  Custom  has  assigned  the  form  of  a  ball  to 
physic,  but  good  sense  will  in  due  time  introduce  the  solution 
of  aloes,  as  acting  more  speedily,  eftectually,  and  safely.  The 
only  other  purgative  on  which  dependence  can  be  placed  is 
the  CROTON.  The  farina  or  meal  of  the  nut  is  generally 
used ;  but  from  its  acrimony  it  should  be  given  in  the  form  of 
ball,  with  linseed  meal.  The  dose  varies  from  a  scruple  to 
half  a  drachm.  It  acts  more  speedily  than  the  aloes,  and 
without  the  nausea  which  they  produce;  but  it  causes  more, 
watery  stools,  and,  consequently,  more  debility.  Linseed- 
oil  is  an  uncertain  but  sate  purgative,  in  doses  from  a  pound 
to  a  pound  and  a  half.  Olive-oil  is  more  uncertain,  but 
safe  ;  but  castor-oil,  that  mild  aperient  in  the  human  being, 
is  both  uncertain  and  unsafe.  Ei'som-salts  are  inefficacious, 
except  in  the  immense  dose  of  a  pound  and  a  half,  and  then 
they  are  not  always  safe. 

Worms. — The  long  white  worm  (iumbricus  teres)  much 
re^mbles  the  common  earth-worm,  and,  being  from  six  to 
ten  inches  in  length,  inhabits  the  small  intestines.  It  is  a 
formidable  looking  animal;  and  if  there  are  many  of  them, 
they  may  consume  more  than  can  be  spared  of  the  nutritive 
part  of  the  food,  or  iho-  mucus  of  the  bowels.  A  tight  skin, 
and  rough  coat,  and  tucked-up  belly,  are  sometimes  connec.4* 
ted  with  their  presence.  They  are  then,  however,  voided  in 
large  quantities.  A  dose  of  physic  will  sometimes  bring 
away  almost  incredible  (juantities  of  them.  Calomel  is  fre- 
4|uently  given  as  a  vermifuge.  The  seldomer  this  drug  is 
administered  to  the  horse  the  better.  When  the  horse  can 
be  spared,  a  strong  dose  of  physic  is  an  excellent  vermifuge, 
so  far  as  the  long  round  worm  is  concerned  ;  but  a  better  i 


DISEASES    OF    HOKSES.  385 

medicine,  and  not  interfering  with  either  the  feeding  or  work 
of  the  horse,  is  emetic  tartar,  with  ginger,  made  into  a  ball 
with  linseed  meal  and  treacle,  and  given  every  morning,  half 
an  hour  before  the  horse  is  fed.  A  smaller,  darker  colored 
worm,  called  the  needle-worm,  or  ascaris,  inhabits  the  larger 
intestines.  Hundreds  of  them  sometimes  descend  into  the 
rectum,  and  immense  quantities  have  been  found  in  the 
coecum.  These  are  a  more  serious  nuisance  than  the  former, 
for  they  cause  a  very  troublesome  irritation  about  the  funda- 
ment, which  sometimes  sadly  annoys  the  horse.  Their  exis- 
tence can  generally  be  discovered  by  a  small  portion  of  mucus, 
which,  hardening,  is  found  adhering  to  the  anus.  Physic  will 
sometimes  bring  away  great  numbers  of  these  worms ;  but 
when  there  is  much  irritation  about  the  tail,  and  much  of 
this  mucus,  indicating  that  they  have  descended  into  the  rec- 
tum, an  injection  of  linseed  oil,  or  of  aloes  dissolved  in  warm 
water,  will  be  a  more  effectual  remedy.  The  tape-worm  is 
seldom  found  in  the  horse. 

BoTs  cannot,  while  they  inhabit  the  stomach  of  the  horse, 
give  the  animal  any  pain,  for  they  have  fastened  on  the  cuti- 
cular  and  insensible  coat.  They  cannot  stimulate  the  stomach 
and  increase  its  digestive  power,  for  they  are  not  on  the  diges- 
tive portion  of  the  stomach.  They  cannot,  by  their  rough- 
ness, assist  the  trituration  or  rubbing  down  of  the  food,  for 
no  such  office  is  performed  in  that  part  of  the  stomach — ^the 
food  is  soflened,  not  rubbed  down.  They  cannot  be  injurious 
to  the  horse,  for  he  enjoys  the  most  perfect  health  when  the 
cuticular  part  of  his  stomach  is  filled  with  them,  and  their 
presence  is  not  even  suspected  until  they  appear  at  the  anus. 
They  cannot  be  removed  by  medicine,  because  they  are  not 
in  that  part  of  the  stomach  to  which  medicine  is  usually  con- 
veyed ;  and  if  they  were,  their  mouths  are  too  deeply  buried 
in  the  mucus  tor  any  medicine,  that  can  be  safely  adminis- 
tered, to  aflect  them  ;  and,  last  of  all,  in  due  course  of  time 
they  detach  themselves,  and  come  away.  Therefore,  the 
wise  man  will  leave  them  to  themselves,  or  content  himself 
with  picking  them  off  when  they  collect  under  the  tail  and 
annoy  the  animal. 

WiND-GALLs. — In  the  neigliimrhood  of  the  fetlock  there 
are  occasionally  fomid  considerable  enlargements,  oftener  on 
the  hind-leg  than  the  fore-one,  which  are  denominated  vrnd- 
galls.  Between  the  tendons  and  other  parts,  and  wherever 
the  tendons  are  exposed  to  pressure  or  friction,  and  particu- 
larly about  their  extremeties,  little  bags  or  sacs  are  placed, 
Q 


386  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

containing  and  suffering  to  ooze  slowly  from  them  a  mucou? 
fluid  to  lubricate  the  parts.  From  undue  pressure,  and  that 
most  frequently  caused  by  violent  action  and  straining  of  the 
tendons,  or,  otten,  from  some  predisposition  about  the  horse, 
these  little  sacs  are  injured.  They  take  on  inflammation, 
and  sometimes  become  large  and  indurated.  There  are  few 
horses  perfectly  free  from  them.  When  they  first  appear, 
and  until  the  inflammation  subsides,  they  may  be  accompa- 
nied by  some  degree  of  lameness  ;  but  otherwise,  except 
when  they  attain  a  great  size,  they  do  not  interfere  with  the 
action  of  the  animal,  or  cause  any  considerable  unsoundness. 
The  farriers  used  to  suppose  that  they  contained  wind — hence 
their  name,  wind-galls ;  and  hence  the  practice  of  opening 
them,  by  which  dreadful  inflammation  was  often  produced, 
and  many  a  valuable  horse  destroyed.  A  slight  wind-gall 
will  scarcely  be  subjected  to  treatment ;  but  if  these  tumors 
are  numerous  and  large,  and  seem  to  impede  the  motion  of 
the  limb,  they  may  be  attacked  first  by  bandage.  The  roller 
should  be  of  flannel,  and  soft  pads  should  be  placed  on  each 
of  the  enlargements,  and  bound  down  tightly  upon  them. 
The  bandage  should  also  be  wetted  with  warm  water  two  or 
three  times  a  day  for  half  an  hour  each  time.  The  wind- 
gall  will  often  diminish  or  disappear  by  this  treatment,  but 
will  too  frequently  return  when  the  horse  is  again  hardly 
worked.  A  blister  is  more  effectual,  but  too  oflen  temporary 
remedy.  Wind-galls  will  return  with  the  renewal  of  work. 
Firing  is  still  more  certain,  if  the  tumors  are  sufficiently  large 
and  annoying  to  justify  our  having  recource  to  measures  so 
severe;  for  it  will  not  only  eflect  the  immediate  absorption 
of  the  fluid,  and  the  reduction  of  the  swelling,  but,  by  con- 
ti;^cting  the  skin,  will  act  as  a  permanent  bandage,  and  there- 
fore prevent  the  re-appearance  of  the  tumor.  The  iodine 
and  mercurial  ointments  have  occasionally  been  used  with 
advantage  in  the  proportion  of  three  parts  of  the  former  to 
two  of  the  latter. 

The  Fetlock. — The  fetlock-joint  is  a  very  complicated 
one,  and  from  the  stress  which  is  laid  on  if,  and  its  being  thtV* 
principal  seat  of  motion  below  the  knee,  it  is  particularly 
subject  to  injury.  There  arc  not  many  cases  of  sprain  of 
the  back-sinew  that  are  not  accompanied  by  inflammation  of 
the  ligaments  of  this  joint ;  and  numerous  supposed  cases  of 
sprain  higher  up  are  simple  affections  of  the  fetlock.  It 
requires  a  great  deal  of  care,  and  some  experience,  to  distin- 
guish the  one  from  the  other.     The  heat  about  the  part,  and 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  387 

the  point  at  which  the  horse  least  endures  the  pressure  of  the 
finger,  will  be  the  principal  guides.  Occasionally,  by  the 
application  of  cooling  lotions,  the  inflammation  may  be  sub- 
dued, but  at  other  times,  the  horse  sufiers  dreadfully,  and  is 
unable  to  stand.  A  serious  afl(;'ction  of  the  fetlock-joint 
demands  prompt  treatment. 

Cutting — The  inside  of  the  letlock  is  often  bruised  by 
the  shoe  or  the  hoof  of  the  opposite  foot.  Many  expedients 
used  to  l»e  tried  to  remove  tiiis  ;  the  inside  heel  has  been 
raised  and  lowered,  and  the  outside  raised  and  lowered ;  and 
sometimes  one  operation  has  succeeded,  and  sometimes  the 
contrary ;  and  there  was  no  point  so  involved  in  obscurity  or 
so  destitute  of  principles  to  guide  the  practitioner.  The  most 
successful  remedy,  and  that  which  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  supercedes  all  others,  is  Mr.  Turner's  shoe,  of  equal 
thickness  from  heel  to  toe,  and  having  but  one  nail,  and  that 
near  the  toe  on  the  inside  of  the  shoe  ;  care  being  taken  that 
the  shoe  shall  not  extend  beyond  the  edge  of  the  crust,  and 
that  the  crust  shall  be  rasped  a  little  at  the  quarters. 

Si'RAiN  OF  THE  coFFix-JoixT. — The  proof  of  this  is  when 
the  lameness  is  sudden,  and  the  heat  and  tenderness  are  j)rin- 
cipaliy  felt  round  the  coronet.  Bleeding  at  the  toe,  physic, 
fomentation,  and  blisters  are  the  usual  means  adopted.  This 
lameness  is  not  easily  removed,  even  by  a  blister ;  and  if 
removed,  like  sprains  of  the  fetlock  and  of  the  back  sinews, 
it  is  apt  to  return,  and  finally  produce  a  great  deal  of  disor- 
gani/ation  and  mischief  in  the  foot.  Sprain  of  the  coflin- 
joint  sometimes  becomes  a  very  serious  ailhir.  Not  being 
always  attended  by  any  external  swelling  and  being  detected 
only  by  heat  round  the  coronet,  the  seat  of  the  lameness  is 
often  overlooked  by  the  groom  and  the  farrier  ;  and  the  dis- 
ease is  sufiered  to  become  conlirmed  before  its  nature  is 
discovered. 

Ringbone. — This  is  a  deposit  of  bony  matter  in  one  of 
the  |)asterns,  and  usually  near  the  joint.  It  ra[)idly  spreads, 
and  involves  not  only  the  pastern-bones,  but  the  cartilages  of 
the  foot,  and  spreading  around  the  pasterns  and  cartilages, 
thus  derives  its  name.  When  the  first  deposit  is  on  the  lower 
pastern,  and  on  both  sides  of  it,  and  produced  by  violent 
inflammation  of  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  it  is  recognised 
by  a  slight  enlargement,  or  bony  tumor  on  each  side  of  the 
foot,  and  just  above  the  coronet.  Horses  with  short  upright 
joints,  and  with  small  feet  and  high  action,  arc  oftenest,  as 
may  be  supposed,  the  subjects  of  this  disease,  ^^'hich  is  the 


388  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

consequence  either  of  concussion  or  sprain  of  the  pastern- 
joints.  It  is  also  more  frequent  in  the  hind  foot  than  the 
fore,  because,  from  the  violent  action  of  the  hind  legs  in 
propelling  the  horse  forward,  the  pasterns  are  more  subject  to 
ligamentary  injury  behind  than  before  ;  yet  the  lameness  is 
not  so  great  there,  because  the  disease  is  contincd  principally 
to  the  ligaments,  and  the  bones  have  not  been  injured  by  con- 
cussion ;  while  from  the  position  of  the  fore  limbs,  there  will 
generally  be  in  them  injury  of  the  bones  to  be  added  to  that 
of  the  ligaments.  In  its  early  stage,  and  when  recognised 
only  by  a  bony  enlargement  on  both  sides  of  the  pastern-joint, 
or  in  some  few  cases  on  one  side  only,  the  lameness  is  not 
very  considerable,  and  it  is  not  impossible  to  remove  the 
disease  by  active  blistering,  or  by  the  application  of  the 
cautery  ;  but  there  is  so  much  wear  and  tear  in  this  part  of 
the  animal,  that  the  inflammation  and  the  disposition  to  the 
formation  of  bone  rapidly  spread.  The  pasterns  first  become 
connected  together  by  bone  instead  of  ligament,  and  thence 
results  what  is  called  an  anchylosed  or  fixed  joint.  From 
this  joint  the  disease  proceeds  to  the  cartilages  of  the  foot, 
and  to  the  union  between  the  lower  pastern,  and  the  coffin 
and  navicular  bones.  Tlie  motion  of  these  parts  likewise  is 
impeded  or  lost,  and  the  whole  of  the  foot  ])ocomes  one  mass 
ot  spongy  bone. 

Enlaugemrnt  of  the  hock. — First,  there  is  inflamma- 
tion, or  sprain  of  the  hockjoint  generally,  arising  from  sudden 
violent  concussion,  by  some  check  at  speed,  or  over-weight, 
and  attended  with  enlargement  of  the  whole  joint,  and  great 
tenderness  and  lameness.  This,  however,  like  all  other  dif- 
fused inflammations,  is  not  so  untractable  as  an  intense  one 
of  a  more  circumscribed  nature,  and  l)y  rest  and  Ibmentation, 
or,  perchance,  tiring,  the  limb  recovers  its  action,  and  the 
horse  becomes  lit  for  ordinary  woik.  The  swelling,  how- 
ever, does  not  always  subside.  ]^nlargoment,  spread  over 
the  whole  of  the  hock-joint,  remains.  A  horse  with  an 
enlarged  hock  nuii^t  always  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  In 
truth,  he  is  unsoinid.  'J'lie  parts,  altered  in  structure,  must 
be  to  a  certain  degree  weakened.  The  anin)al  may  discharge 
his  usual  work  during  a  long  period,  without  return  of  lame- 
ness ;  but  if  one  of  those  emergencies  should  occur  when  all 
his  energies  require  to  i)e  exerted,  the  disorganised  and  wea- 
kened part  will  fail.  He  may  be  ridden  or  driven  moileralely 
for  many  a  year  wilhotit  inconvenience,  yet  one  extra  hnrd 
day's  work  may  lame  him  t()r  ever. 


DISEASKS    or    HORSES.  089 

Curb. — There  arc  often  injuries  of  particular  parts  of  the 
hock-joint.  Curb  is  an  affection  of  this  kind.  It  is  an 
enlargement  at  the  hack  of  the  hock,  three  or  four  inches 
below  its  point.  It  is  either  a  strain  of  the  ring-like  liga- 
ment which  binds  the  tendons  in  their  place,  or  of  the  sheath 
of  the  tendons ;  oftener,  however,  of  the  ligament  than  of 
the  sheath.  Any  sudden  action  of  the  limb  of  more  than 
usual  violence  may  produce  it,  and  ihereibre  horses  are  found 
to  *  throw  out  curhs '  after  a  hardly-contested  race,  an  extra- 
ordinary leap,  a  severe  gallop  over  heavy  ground,  or  a  sudden 
check  in  the  galloj).  Young  horses  are  particularly  liable  to 
it,  and  horses  that  are  cou'-Jwckedf — whose  hocks  and  legs 
resemble  those  of  the  cow,  the  hocks  being  turned  inward, 
and  legs  forming  a  considerable  angle  outwards.  This  is 
intelligible  enough  ;  for  in  hocks  so  formed,  the  annular  liga- 
ment must  be  continually  on  the  stretch,  in  order  to  confine 
the  tendon.  Curbs  are  generally  accompanied  by  considera- 
ble lameness  at  their  first  appearance,  but  the  swelling  is  not 
always  great.  They  are  best  detected  by  observing  the  leg 
sideway.  The  first  object  in  attempting  the  cure  is  to  abate 
inflammation,  and  this  will  be  most  readily  accomplished  by 
cold  evaporating  lotions  frequently  applied  to  the  part.  Equal 
portions  of  spirit  of  wine,  water,  and  vinegar,  will  afford  an 
excellent  application.  It  will  be  almost  impossible  to  keep  a 
bandage  on.  If  the  heat  and  lameness  are  considerable,  it 
will  be  prudent  to  give  a  dose  of  physic,  and  to  bleed  from 
the  subcutaneous  vein,  whose  course  is  near  it;  and  whether 
the  injury  is  of  the  annular  ligament,  or  the  sheath  of  the 
tendon,  more  active  means  will  be  necessary  to  perfect  a 
cure.  Either  a  liquid  blister  should  be  rubbed  on  the  part, 
consisting  of  a  vinus  or  turpentine  tincture  of  cantharides, 
and  this  daily  applied  until  some  considerable  swelling  takes 
place  ;  or,  what  is  the  preferable  plan,  the  hair  should  be 
cut  off,  and  the  pait  blistered  as  soon  as  the  heat  has  been 
subdued.  The  blister  should  be  repeated  until  the  swelling 
has  disappeared,  and  the  horse  goes  sound.  In  severe  casos 
it  may  be  necessary  to  fire  ;  but  a  fair  trial,  however,  shoidd 
be  given  to  milder  measures.  If  the  iron  is  used,  it  should 
])e  applied  in  straight  lines.  There  are  few  lamenesses  in 
which  absolute  and  long-continued  rest  is  more  requisite.  It 
leaves  the  parts  materially  weakened,  and,  if  the  horse  is 
soon  put  to  work  again,  the  lameness  will  frequently  return. 
No  horse  that  has  had  curbs,  should  be  put  even  to  ordinary 
work  in  less  than  a  month  after  the  apparent  cure  ;  and,  even 


390  AMERICAN     AGRICULTURE. 

then,  he  should  very  gradually  resume  his  former  habits.  A 
horse  with  a  curb,  is  manifestly  unsound,  or  generally  con- 
denmed  as  unsound.  Curb  is  also  an  hereditary  complaint ; 
and  therefore  a  horse  that  has  once  sutiered  from  it,  should 
always  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  especially  if  either  of  the 
parents  have  exhibited  it. 

Bone  spavin  is  an  affection  of  the  bones  of  the  hock  joint. 
Spavined  horses  are  generally  capable  of  slow  work.  They 
are  equal  to  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of  the  farm,  and 
therefore  they  should  not  always  be  rejected  by  the  small 
farmer,  as  they  may  generally  be  procured  at  little  price. 
These  horses  are  not  only  capable  of  agricultural  work,  but 
they  generally  improve  under  if.  'J'he  lameness  in  some 
degree  a})atep,  and  even  the  bony  tumor  to  a  certain  degree 
lessens.  There  is  sufficient  moderate  motion  and  friction  of 
the  limb  to  rouse  the  absorbents  to  action,  and  cause  them  to 
take  up  a  portion  of  the  bony  matter  thrown  out,  but  not 
enough  to  renew  or  prolong  inflammation.  It  cannot  be  said 
that  the  plough  affords  a  cure  for  spavin,  but  the  spavined 
horse  often  materially  improves  while  working  at  it.  For 
fast  work,  and  for  work  that  must  be  regularly  performed, 
spavined  horses  are  not  well  calculated  ;  for  this  lanjencss 
behind  produces  great  difficulty  in  rising,  and  the  conscious- 
ness that  he  will  not  be  able  to  rise  Without  painful  effort 
occasionally  prevents  the  horse  from  lying  down  at  all ;  and 
the  animal  that  cannot  rest  well  cannot  long  travel  far  or  fast. 
The  treatment  of  spavin  is  simple  enough,  but  far  from  being 
always  effectual.  The  owner  of  the  horse  will  neither  con- 
i=}idt  his  OM'n  interest,  nor  the  dictates  of  humanity,  if  he  suffers 
the  chisel  and  mallet,  or  the  gimlet,  or  the  pointed  iron,  or 
arsenic,  to  be  used  ;  yet  measures  of  considerable  severity 
nnist  be  resorted  to.  Repeated  blisters  will  usually  cause 
either  the  absorption  of  the  bony  deposit,  or  the  abatement 
or  removal  of  the  inffammation  of  the  ligaments,  or,  as  a  lirst 
resource,  the  heated  iron  may  be  applied. 

Swelled  le(;s. — The  fore  legs,  but  oftener  the  hind  ones, 
and  especially  in  coarse  horses,  are  sometimes  subject  to  con- 
siderable  enlargement.  Occasionally,  when  the  horse  does 
not  seem  to  labor  under  any  other  disease,  and  sometimes 
from  an  apparent  shiftiug  of  disease  from  other  parts,  the 
hind  legs  suddenly  swell  to  an  enormous  degree  from  the 
hock  and  almost  from  the  stifle  to  the  fetlock,  attended  by  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  skin,  and 
sometimes  excessive  and  verj'  peculiar  lameness.     The  pulse 


DISEASES    OF  HOBSES.  391 

likewise  becomes  quick  and  hard,  and  the  horse  evidently 
labors  under  considerable  fever.  It  is  acute  inflammation  of 
the  cellular  substance  of  the  legs,  and  that  most  sudden  in 
its  attack,  and  most  violent  in  its  degree,  and  therefore  atten- 
ded hy  the  eflusion  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  fluid  into 
the  cellular  membrane.  It  occurs  in  young  horses,  and  in 
those  which  are  over-fcd  and  little  exercised.  Fomentation, 
diuretics,  or  purgatives,  or,  if  there  is  much  fever,  a  moderate 
bleeding  will  often  relieve  the  distention  almost  as  suddenly 
as  it  appeared. 

The  cure,  when  the  case  has  not  been  too  long  neglected, 
is  sufficiently  plain.  Physic,  or  diuretics,  or  both,  must  be 
had  recourse  to.  Mild  cases  will  generally  yield  to  their 
influence  ;  but,  if  the  animal  has  been  negleted,  the  treat- 
ment must  be  decisive.  If  the  horse  is  in  high  condition, 
these  should  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  bleeding ;  but  if 
there  are  any  symptoms  of  debility,  bleeding  would  only 
increase  the  want  of  tone  in  the  vessels.  Horses  taken  from 
grass  and  brought  into  close  stables  very  speedily  have  swelled 
legs,  because  the  difference  of  food  and  increase  of  nutriment 
rapidly  increases  the  quantity  of  the  circulating  fluid,  while 
the  want  of  exercise  takes  away  the  means  by  which  it  might 
be  got  rid  of.  The  remedy  here  is  sufficiently  plain.  Swelled 
legs,  however,  may  proceed  from  general  debility.  They 
may  be  the  consequence  of  starvation,  or  disease  that  has 
considerably  weakened  the  animal ;  and  these  parts,  being 
farthest  from  the  center  of  circulation,  are  the  first  to  show 
the  loss  of  power  by  the  accumulation  of  fluid  in  them.  Here 
the  means  of  cure  would  be  to  increase  the  general  strength, 
with  which  the  exlremeties  would  sympathise.  Mild  diuretics 
and  tonics  would  therefore  be  evidently  indicated. 

Horses  in  the  spring  and  fall  are  subject  to  swelled  legs. 
The  powers  of  the.  constitution  are  principally  employed  in 
providing  a  new  coat  for  the  animal,  and  the  extremeties  have 
not  their  share  of  vital  influence.  Mingled  cordials  and  diu- 
retics are  indicated  here — -the  diuretic  to  lessen  the  quantity 
of  the  circulating  fluid,  and  the  cordial  to  invigorate  the  frame. 

Greast:. — Swelled  legs,  although  distinct  from  grease,  is 
a  disease  that  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  it.  Grease  is  a  spe- 
cific inflammation  of  the  skin  of  the  heels,  sometimes  of  the 
fore-feet,  but  oftener  of  the  hinder  ones.  Bad  stable  manage- 
ment is  the  true  cause  of  it.  Grease  is  a  local  comp'aint. 
The  heel  should  be  we'.l  but  gently  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  and  as  much  of  the  scurf  detached  as  is  easily  remo- 


^92  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

vable.  An  ointment  should  be  applied,  to  supple,  cool,  and 
heal  the  part.  When  cracks  appear  the  mode  ol"  treatment 
will  depend  on  their  extent  and  depth.  If  the  cracks  are 
deep,  with  an  ichorous  discharge  and  considerable  lameness, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  poultice  the  heel.  A  poultice  of  lin- 
seed meal  will  be  generally  effective,  unless  the  discharge  is 
thin  and  offensive,  when  an  ounce  of  finely-powdered  char- 
coal should  be  mixed  with  the  linseed  meal;  or  a  poultice  of 
carrots,  boiled  soft  and  mashed.  After  the  chaps  or  cracks 
have  healed,  the'  legs  will  sometimes  continue  gorged  and 
swelled.  A  flannel  bandage,  evenly  applied  over  the  whole 
of  the  swelled  part,  will  be  very  serviceable  ;  oj',  should  the 
season  admit  of  it,  a  run  at  grass,  particularly  spring  grass, 
should  be  allowed. 

The  feeding  should  likewise  vary  with  the  case,  but 
with  these  rules,  which  admit  of  no  exception,  that  green 
meat  should  be  given,  and  more  especially  carrots,  when 
they  are  not  too  expensive,  imd  mashes,  if  the  horse  will  eat 
them,  and  never  the  full  allowance  of  grain. 

Walking  exercise  should  be  resorted  to  as  soon  as  the 
horse  is  able  to  bear  it,  and  this  by  degrees  may  be  increased 
to  a  gentle  trot. 

From  bad  stable  management  at  first,  and  neglect  during 
the  disease,  a  yet  worse  kind  of  grease  occasionally  appears. 
The  ulceration  extends  over  the  skin  of  the  heel  and  the 
fetlock,  and  a  fungus  springs  from  the  surface  of  both,  highly 
sensible,  bleeding  at  the  slightest  touch,  and  interspersed 
with  scabs.  By  degrees  portions  of  the  fungus  begin  to  be 
Qfpvered  with  a  horny  substance,  protruding  in  the  form  of 
knobs,  and  collected  together  in  bunches.  These  are  known 
by  the  name  of  grapes.  A  foetid  and  very  peculiar  exhuda- 
dation  proceeds  from  nearly  the  whole  of  the  unnatural 
substance.  The  horse  evidently  suffers  much,  and  is  gradu- 
ally worn  down  by  the  discharge.  The  assistance  of  a. 
veterinary  surgeon  is  here  indispensiblc. 

Some  horses  are  more  subject  to  grease  than  others,  par- 
ticularly draught-horses,  both  heavy  and  light,  but  particu- 
larly the  former,  and  if  they  have  no  degree  of  blood  in  them. 
It  was  the  experience  of  this  which  partly  contributed  to  the 
gradual  change  of  coach  and  other  draught.hor,>es  to  those 
of  a  lighter  breed.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  grease 
arises  from  mismanagement  and  neglect. 

Everything  that  has  a  tendency  to  excite  inflammation  in 
the  skin  of  the  heel  is  a  cause  of  grease.     Therefore  want 


DISEASES    OF   HORSES.  393 

of  exercise  is  a  frequent  source  of  this  disease.  When  high 
feeding  is  added  to  irregular  or  deficient  exercise,  the  disease 
is  evidently  still  more  likely  to  be  produced.  Want  of  clean- 
liness in  the  stable  is  a  fruitful  source  of  grease.  When 
the  heels  are  imbedded  in  tilth,  they  are  weakened  by  the 
constant  moisture  surrounding  them — irritated  by  the  acri- 
mony of  the  dung  and  urine,  and  little  prepared  to  endure 
the  cold  evaporation  to  which  the^y  are  exposed  when  the 
horse  is  taken  out  of  the  stable.  The  absurd  practice  of 
washing  the  feet  and  legs  of  horses  when  they  come  from 
their  work,  and  either  carelessly  sponging  them  down  after- 
wards, or  leaving  them  to  dry  as  they  may,  is,  however^  the 
most  common  origin  of  grease. 

When  the  horse  is  warmed  by  his  work,  and  the  heels 
share  in  the  warmth,  the  momentary  cold  of  washing  may 
not  be  injurious,  if  the  animal  is  immediately  rubbed  dry; 
yet  even  this  would  be  better  avoided :  but  to  wash  out  the 
heels,  and  then  leave  them  partially  dry  or  perfectly  wet, 
and  suffering  from  the  extreme  cold  that  is  produced  by 
evaporation  from  a  moist  and  wet  surface  is  the  most  absurd, 
dangerous  and  injurious  practice  that  can  be  imagined.  It  is 
worse  when  the  post-horse  or  the  plough-horse  is  plunged  up 
to  his  belly  in  the  river  or  pond  immediately  after  his  work. 

There  has  been  some  dispute  as  to  the  propriety  of  cutting 
the  hair  from  the  heels.  Custom  has  very  properly  retained 
the  hair  on  our  farm-horses.  Nature  would  not  have  given 
it  had  it  not  been  useful.  It  guards  the  heel  from  being 
injured  by  the  inequalities  of  the  ploughed  field,  and  prevents 
the  dirt,  in  which  the  heels  are  constantly  enveloped,  from 
reaching  and  caking  on  and  irritating  the  skin.  When 
the  horse  is  carefully  tended  after  his  work  is  over,  and  his 
legs  quickly  and  completely  dried,  the  less  hair  he  has  about 
them  the  better,  for  then  both  the  skin  and  the  hair  can 
be  made  perfectly  dry  before  evaporation  begins  or  proceeds 
so  far  as  to  deprive  the  legs  of  their  heat.  Grease  is  the 
child  of  negligence  and  mismanagement. 

Setons  are  pieces  of  tape  or  cord,  passed,  by  means  of 
an  instrument  resembling  a  large  needle,  either  through 
abscesses,  or  the  base  of  ulcers  with  deep  sinuses,  or  between 
the  skin  and  the  muscular  or  other  substances  beneath. 
Tney  are  retained  there  by  tl.e  ends  being  tied  together,  or  by 
a  knot  at  each  end.  The  tape  is  moved  in  the  wound  twice 
or  ihrice  in  the  day,  and  octauonally  wt^tted  with  spirit  of 
turpentine,  or  some  aerid  fluid,  in  order  to  increase  the  inflara- 
Q* 


894  AMERICAN    A6BICULTUBE. 

mation  which  it  produces,  or  the  discharge  which  is  intended 
to  be  established. 

In  abscesses,  such  as  occur  in  the  withers  or  the  poll,  and 
when  passed  from  the  summit  to  the  very  bottom  of  the 
the  swelling,  setons  are  highly  useful  by  discharging  the 
purulent  fluid  and  suffering  any  fresh  quantity  of  it  that  may 
be  secreted  to  fli^w  out;  and,  by  the  degree  of  inflammation 
which  they  excite  on  the  interior  of  the  tumor,  stimulating 
it  to  throw  out  healthy  granulations,  which  gradually  occupy 
and  fill  the  hollow.  In  deep  fistulous  wounds  they  are  indis- 
pensable, for  except  some  channel  is  made  through  which  the 
matter  may  flow  from  the  bottom  of  the  wound, it  will  continue 
to  penetrate  deeper  into  the  part,  and  the  healing  process 
will  never  be  accomplished.  On  these  accounts  a  seton 
passes  through  the  base  of  the  ulcer  in  poll-evil  and  fistulous 
withers  is  of  so  much  benefit. 

Setons  are  sometimes  useful  by  promoting  a  discharge  in 
in  the  neighborhood  of  an  inflamed  part,  and  thus  diverting 
and  carrying  away  a  portion  of  the  fluids  which  distend  or 
overload  the  vessels  of  that  part;  thus,  a  seton  is  placed  with 
considerable  advantage  in  the  cheek,  when  the  eyes  are 
much  inflamed." — (Youait.) 

Founder  or  inflammation  of  the  foot  arises  from  various 
causes  ;  excessive  exertion,  great  heat,  and  particularly  when 
followed  by  drinking  cold  water  or  overloading  the  stomach 
in  any  way,  sudden  transition  from  great  cold  to  excessive 
heat,  and  change  of  inflannnation  from  some  other  part. 
When  the  attack  is  severe  and  confined  to  the  fore-feet,  Youatt 
recommends  removing  the  shoe  and  paring  the  hoof  as  much 
as  possible,  taking  A  quarts  of  blood  from  each  toe,  placing 
the  feet  in  warm  water,  and  afterwards  applying  sofl  poulti- 
ces of  linseed  meal  to  the  whole  foot,  and  pastern.  If  this  is 
ineffectual,  take  three  quarts  of  ])lood  from  each  foot  the  suc- 
ceeding day.  It  may  then  be  necessary  to  blister  the  foot 
ancf'coronet.  The  animal  should  be  kept  on  green  food  or 
light  mashes,  and  allowed  to  run  on  grass  without  labor.  An 
elfectual  cure  has  been  made  by  taking  ofl^  the  shoe  and  ap- 
plying lard  raised  to  the  boiling  point,  to  every  part  of  the 
foot. 

Poison  from  weeds,  sometimes  gives  to  horses  ulcerated 
tongues  and  lips,  and  swollen  legs  and  sheath.  If  then;  be 
much  inflammation,  bleeding  should  be  resorted  to,  then  give 
daily  bran-mashes,  with  Glauber  salts  in  doses  of  Ho  li  lbs., 
according  to  the  size  of  the  horse,  with  half  a  tea-spoon  full 


DISEASES    01'    HOUSED.  395 

of  saltpetre.      Washing  the  ulcerated  parts  with  warm  soap- 
suds, copperas  and  suojar  ot'lead  may  I'ollow, 

Inflammation  of  the  eyes.  Dr.  Campbell,  of  Ohio,  recom- 
mends for  this,  shutting  up  in  a  dark  stable,  and  feeding  on 
fresh-cut  grass  and  bran-mashes.  Bleed  freely  from  the 
mouth,  and  give  Ih  lbs.  Glauber  salts,  2  drams  nitre,  and  15 
grains  tartarizod  antimony,  dissolved  in  a  bucket  of  water, 
which  the  animal  will  drink  when  thirsty.  This  to  be  re- 
peated daily  till  purging  is  efiected.  If  it  fails,  bleed  from 
the  large  veins  just  below  the  eye,  taking  15  to  20  oz.  of  blood. 
TJie  filing  of  hornets,  bees  or  snakes,  may  be  relieved  by 
immediate  external  application  of  strong  spirits  of  hartshorn  ; 
salt  and  vinegar  are  also  good. 

For  s2)rainSi  take  a  mixture  of  1  oz.  sweet  oil,  4  oz,  spirits 
hartshorn,  h  oz.  oil  of  thyme,  and  lub  with"^it  frequently. 
The  remedies  mentioned  below  are  also  effectual  for  sprains. 
For  a  bruise  w  blow,  apply  hot  water  a  long  time  with  wet 
cloths.  Beef  brine  is  an  excellent  lotion  for  both  sprains  and 
bruises.  A  veteran  among  horses,  claims  that  it  will  almost 
set  a  joint,  or  heal  a  fracture.  Wormwood  or  tanzy  lotions 
are  also  good. 

Fistula  is  frequently  cured  by  repeated  applications  of  saU. 
Wounds  should  be  washed  twice   a  day  with  clean,   soft 
water,  or  with  a  little  Castile  soap  added,  and  then  rub  with 
whale-oil.     This  answers  for  all  seasons,  keeps  off  flies,  re- 
stores the  huir,  and  of  the  original  color. 

Galls,  or  wounds  on  the  back  from  the  saddle,  are  most 
effectually  removed  by  white-lead,  moistened  with  swcet-oil 
or  milk.  The  saddle  ought  alwaj^s  to  fit  easily  and  be  well 
padded,  and  it  should  be  taken  off  and  the  animal's  back 
washed  at  every  baiting. 

Shoeing  is  an  importand  operation,  and  should  never  be  at- 
tempted  but  under  the  supervision  of  an  experienced  person  ; 
nor  ought  the  shoes  to  remain  so  long  as  to  produce  contrac- 
tion of  the  hoof,  which  is  followed  by  lameness  and  corns. 
They  should  be  re-set  as  often  as  every  five  or  six  weeks. 
Contraction  of  the  foot  is  also  caused  by  standing  on  the  dry 
stable  for  some  days.  In  this  case  the  hoof  should  be  stop- 
ped with  fresh  cow-manure  and  clay,  or  with  a  thick  felt 
soaked  in  water,  and  cut  to  suit  the  foot.  This  is  also  a  good 
application  over  night,  for  horses  that  have  accomplished  a 
hard  day's  work  on  a  dry  road.  Litter  is  not  objectionable 
to  the  feet,  if  clean  and  not  too  damp.  Some  suppose  this 
the  cause  of  contraction,  but  it  is  the  reverse.     It  is  besides 


3^6  AillERICAN  AGKICULTURE. 

of  great  benefit  when  shook  out  for  a  bed,  by  inducing  the 
horse  to  rest  himself.  He  is  thus  enabled  to  do  more  work, 
and  with  a  less  expenditure  of  food. 

Corns. — "  In  the  angle  between  the  bars  and  the  quarters, 
the  horn  of  (he  sole  has  sometimes  a  red  appearance,  and  is 
more  spongy  and  softer  than  at  any  other  part.  The  horse 
flinches  when  this  portion  of  the  horn  is  pressed  upon,  and 
occasional  or  permanent  lameness  is  produced.  This  disease 
of  the  foot  is  termed  corns  :  bearing  this  resemblance  to  the 
corn  of  the  human  being,  that  it  is  produced  by  pressure,  and 
is  a  cause  of  lameness,  When  corns  are  neglected,  so  much 
inflammation  is  produced  in  that  part  of  the  sensible  sole, 
that  suppuration  follows,  and  to  that,  quittor  succeeds,  and 
the  matter  cither  undermines  the  horny  sole,  or  is  discharged 
at  the  coronet. 

"  The  cure  of  old  corns  is  difficult ;  for  as  all  shoeing  has 
some  tendency  to  produce  pressure  here,  the  habit  of  throwing 
out  this  diseased  horn  is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  when  once  con- 
tracted ;  recent  corns,  however;  will  yield  to  good  shoeing. 

"The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  well  to  pare  out  the  angle 
between  the  crust  and  the  bars.  Two  objects  arc  answered 
by  this  :  the  extent  of  the  disease  will  be  ascertained,  and  one 
cause  of  it  removed.  A  very  small  drawing-knife  must  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  corn  must  be  pared  out  to  the 
very  bottom,  taking  caie  not  to  wound  the  sole.  It  may  then 
be  discovered  whether  there  is  any  efiusion  of  blood  or  mat- 
ter underneath.  If  this  is  suspected,  an  opening  must  be 
made  through  the  horn,  the  matter  evacuated,  the  separated 
horn  taken  away,  the  course  and  extent  of  the  sinuses  explo- 
red, and  introduce  into  them  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate 
of  zinc,  by  means  of  a  small  syringe.  Place  over  this  dress- 
ing the  common  cataplasm,  or  the  turpentine  ointment,  and 
renew  the  application  every  twenty-four  hours.  Three  or 
foiir  such  applications  complete  a  cure.  Should  there  be  no 
collection  of  fluid,  the  butyr  of  antimony  should  be  applied 
over  the  whole  extent  of  the  corn,  after  the  horn  has  been 
thinned  as  closely  as  possible.  The  object  of  this  is  to  stim- 
ulate the  sole  to  throw  out  more  healthy  horn.  In  bad  cases  , 
a  bar-shoe  may  be  put  on,  so  chambered,  that  there  shall  be  *' 
no  pressure  on  the  diseased  part.  This  may  be  worn  for  one 
or  two  shoeings,  but  not  constantly,  for  there  are  few  frogs 
that  would  bear  the  constant  pressure  of  the  bar-shoe  ;  and 
the  want  of  pressure  on  the  heel,  generally  occasioned  by 
their  use,  would  produce  a  softened  and  bulbous  state  of  the 


mSEASES    OF    HORSES,  397 

heels,  that  would  ofitselfbe  an  inevitable  source  of  lameness. 
Turning  out  to  grass,  after  the  horn  is  a  little  grown,  first 
with  a  bar-shoe,  and  afterwards  with  the  shoe  lettered  on  one 
side,  or  with  tips,  will  often  be  serviceable.  A  horse  that 
has  once  had  corns  to  any  considerable  extent  should,  at  every 
shoeing,  have  the  seat  of  corn  well  pared  out,  and  the  butyr 
of  antimony  applied. 

'*  An  over.reacii  is  a  tread  upon  the  heel  of  the  coronet 
of  the  tore  foot  by  the  shoe  of  the  corresponding  hind  foot, 
and  either  inflicted  by  the  toe,  or  by  the  inner  edge  of  the 
inside  of  the  shoe.  The  preventive  treatment  is  the  bevel- 
ling, or  rounding  off,  of  the  inside  edge  or  rim  of  the  hind 
shoes.  The  cure  is,  the  cutting  away  of  the  loose  parts,  the 
application  of  Friar's  balsam,  and  protection  from  the  dirt. 

"  There  is  a  singular  species  of  over-reaching,  termed 
FORGING  or  CLICKING.  The  horse,  in  the  act  of  trotting, 
strikes  the  toes  of  the  hind  shoes  against  the  fore  one.  This 
noise  of  the  clicking  is  unpleasant,  and  the  trick  or  habit  is 
not  altogether  free  from  danger.  It  is  most  frequent  in  young 
horses,  and  is  attributable  to  too  great  activity,  or  length  of 
stride  in  the  hind  legs.  The  rider  may  do  something  by 
keeping  the  head  of  the  horse  well  up ;  but  the  smith  may 
effect  more  by  making  the  hind  shoes  of  clicking  horses 
short  in  the  toe,  and  having  the  web  broad.  When  they  are 
too  long,  they  are  apt  to  be  torn  oft' —  when  too  narrow,  the 
hind  foot  may  bruise  the  sole  of  the  fore  one,  or  may  be  locked 
fast  between  the  branches  of  the  fore  shoe." — (Youcat.) 

The  bearing  rein  is  a  matter  of  much  controversy,  some 
claiming  that  it  should  be  entirely  abolished,  while  others  as 
strenuously  contend  for  its  almost  universal  use.  Nimrod, 
who  is  deemed  perfectly  competent  autliority,  insists  on  its 
use  with  fast  roadsters  and  coach-horses.  With  team-horses, 
it  may  generally  be  dispensed  with,  and  always  should  be  in 
ascending  hills,  as  it  materially  diminishes  their  c  opacity  for 
exertion.  The  fault  in  its  use,  is  its  excessive  tightness,  and 
when  standing,  the  horse  ought  never  to  be  tormented  with  it. 

The  bit  is  a  frequent  cause  of  injury  to  the  mouth  of  the 
horse,  fretting  and  teasing  him,  and  in  many  cases,  inducing 
permanent  injury  and  viciousness.  It  should  never  be  made 
annoying  to  the  horse,  beyond  the  absolute  necessity  for  his 
proper  restraint.  An  unruly  stud  may  he  controlled  by  j)assing 
the  rein  from  the  ring  on  the  oft-side  over  the  head  and 
through  the  left  ring.  This  gives  a  purchase  to  the  groom 
which  the  horse  cannot  resist.     Blinds  have  for  a  long  time 


398  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUKE. 

been  fashionable,  but  in  few  cases  are  necessary,  while  in 
almost  all  they  are  decidedly  injurious. 

The  Stable  is  an  important  matter  connected  with  the 
proper  management  of  horses.  These  should  be  as  much  as 
possible,  of  an  uniform  temperature,  cool  in  summer,  warm  in 
winter,  and  always  clean,  dry,  and  well  ventilated.  But  no 
air  must  be  allowed  to  blow  directly  upon  the  animal.  The 
horse  is  a  native  of  a  warm  climate,  and  ought  to  be  well 
protected  against  cold.  The  stable  should  be  neither  too 
light  or  too  dark,  nor  must  the  light  ever  be  admitted  before 
the  eye  of  the  horse.  For  judicious  and  extended  arrange- 
ment of  stables,  and  n\anagement  of  horses,  the  inquiring 
reader  is  referred  to  StewaH's  Stable  Economy, 


CHAPTER     XTX. 


THE  ASS,  THE  MULE,  AND  THE  COMPARATIVE  LABOR 
OF  WORKING  ANLMALS. 


THE  ASS 


Is  a  native  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  central  jiarts  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  liike  the  horse,  he  goes  in  troops  and  displays 
great  natural  sagacity,  activity  and  courage.  Job  says,  "  he 
scometh  the  multitude  of  the  city,  neither  regardeth  the  cry- 
ing of  the  driver."  Like  the  horse,  too,  he  has  from  time 
immemorial,  1)een  tamed,  and  become  the  faithful  servant  of 
man  ;  but  unlike  him,  he  is  subject  to  fev/  maladies,  is  hardy 
and  enduring,  and  subsists,  and  eve!i  thrives,  on  coarse  and 
scanty  forage.  Tims  Job  says  of  his  natural  haunts,  "Whose 
house  I  have  made  the  wilderness,  and  the  barren  land  liis 
dwellings ;  the  range  of  the  mountains  is  his  [)asture,  and  he 
searcheth  after  every  green  thing.^^  And  Xenophon,  in  his 
Anabasis,  a  thousand  years  later,  says  of  one  of  the  Asiatic 
deserts  through  which  he  |)assed  with  the  army  f)f  Cyrus, 


THE  ASS.  399 

"  that  it  was  full  of  worm-wood ;  if  any  other  kinds  of 
shrubs  or  reeds  grew  there,  they  had  all  an  aromatic  smell ; 
but  no  trees  appeared.  Of  wild  creatures,  the  most  numer- 
ous are  wild  asses,  which  our  horses  sometimes  chased,  but 
the  wild  asses  exceeded  them  much  in  speed." 

Varieties. — The  different  breeds  of  asses,  are  supposed 
to  be  quite  as  numerous  as  those  of  the  horse.  Four  distinct 
races  are  mentioned  In  the  ancient  scriptures.  In  modern 
times  we  find  a  similar  diversity.  There  are  two  kinds  in 
Persia,  the  largest  a  slow,  heavy  brute,  used  only  for  burdens  ; 
the  other  smaller  and  more  spirited,  and  used  for  the  saddle. 
In  Egypt,  a  considerable  though  less  marked  difference  ex- 
ists, those  near  the  Delta  being  inferior  to  those  which  are 
bred  in  Upper  Egypt  and  Nubia.  In  Spain,  a  difference  in 
size  and  spirit  prevails,  greater  even,  than  in  Persia.  The 
Zebra  is  nearly  allied  in  size,  shape  and  character,  to  the 
wild  ass,  but  his  untameable  ferocity  has  hitherto  effectually 
bid  defiance,  alike  to  the  scourges  and  caresses,  the  frowns 
and  the  favors  of  man.  Arabia  produces  some  of  the  most 
spirited  and  hardy  asses,  but  their  size,  like  that  of  their  hor- 
ses, is  too  small  for  purposes  of  the  greatest  utility.  The 
Maltese  Jack  is  by  American  breeders,  deemed  the  choicest 
animal  from  which  to  propagate.  He  is  evidently  of  Ara- 
bian descent,  and  possesses  all  the  good  qualities  of  his  an- 
cestry, with  considerable  additional  size.  We  have  several 
varieties,  all  of  which  are  imported,  as  there  are  no  natives 
of  the  Western  Continent.  The  early  importations  were 
principally  made  from  the  Azores  and  Cape  de  Verd  Islands, 
and  were  mostly  of  an  inferior  character.  A  superior  Maltese 
Jack  was  prosecuted  to  Gen.  Washington,  in  1787,  by  La 
Fayette,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  first  ever  sent  to  this  coun- 
try. Mr.  Custis  describes  him,  as  of  moderate  size,  clean 
limbed,  possessing  great  activity,  the  fire  and  ferocity  of  a 
tiger,  of  a  dark  brown  and  nearly  black,  white  belly  and 
muzzle,  and  manageable  only  by  one  groom,  nor  then  safely. 
He  lived  to  a  great  age.  His  mules  were  all  active,  spirited, 
and  serviceable,  and  when  from  stout  mares,  attained  consid- 
erable size.  A  Spanish  Jack  and  Jennet  were  also  presented 
to  Washington  about  the  same  time,  by  the  King  of  Spain. 
The  first  is  characterized  by  the  same  authority,  as  a  huge, 
ill-shapen  animal,  near  16  hands  high,  very  large  head, 
clumsy  limbs,  and  to  all  appearance,  little  calculated  for  active 
service  ;  he  was  of  a  grey  color,  and  not  much  valued  for  his 
mules,  which  were  unwieldy  and  dull.     From  the  Maltese 


400  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Jack  and  Spanish  Jennet,  which  approach  the  size  of  the 
large  Spanish  Jack,  was  bred  a  valuable  animal  Compound, 
which  partook  of  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  sire,  with  the 
weight  of  the  dam.  From  him  descended  many  of  the  best 
mules  of  Mount  Vernon.  Many  other  valuable  importations 
followed  these  animals,  and  it  is  believed,  we  have  for  many 
years,  had  as  fine  specimens  of  the  ass  as  the  world  affords. 
Jennets  or  she  asses,  are  used  among  us  principally  for  breed- 
ing Jacks,  and  of  course  are  not  numerous.  They  are  some- 
times,  though  seldom,  bred  to  the  horse.  It  is  difficult  to 
induce  the  horse  to  notice  them,  and  the  produce,  which  is 
called  a  hinny,  is  less  hardy  and  useful  than  the  mule.  The 
milk  of  the  she-ass  is  lighter  and  more  digestible  than  that 
of  any  other  animal,  and  in  former  times  was  in  great  request 
for  invalids. 

The  ass  is  occasionally  used  in  the  cart,  or  as  a  beast  of 
burden.  Such  as  are  employed  for  these  purposes,  are  gene- 
rally of  an  inferior  kind,  and  are  only  used  for  the  lightest 
work.  They  may  sometimes  be  seen  among  the  fish-mongers 
and  small  vegetable  dealers  about  our  city  markets,  but  little 
larger  than  a  Newoundland  dog  or  Shetland  pony,  trun- 
dling along  a  light  cart  with  a  wheel-barrow  load.  In  an- 
cient times  they  have  been,  and  in  foreign  countries  even  at 
the  present  time,  they  are  extensively  used.  But  the  moderns 
have  adopted  the  mule  as  the  proper  and  almost  exclusive 
substitute  for  the  ass  ;  and  it  would  show  a  still  greater  intel- 
ligence and  economy,  if  it  much  more  extensively  took  the 
place  of  the  horse. 

THE  MULE 

Is  the  hybrid  produced  by  the  ass  with  the  mare.  How  early 
this  animal  was  bred,  is  uncertain,  but  we  know  he  was  in 
l%h  repute  in  the  reign  of  David,  near  3000  years  ago,  for 
he  was  rcKle  by  Absalom,  the  favorite  prince  of  Israel,  on  the 
field  of  battle.  They  have  from  time  immemorial,  been  bred 
in  various  i)arts  of  the  East,  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  throughout  Spain,  Portugal,  and  other  countries, 
many  of  them  being  of  splendid  appearance  and  of  fine  quali^. 
ties.  In  these  countries,  they  arc  frequently  used  by  the^ 
grandees  and  nobles,  and  indeed  by  royalty  itself;  and  how- 
ever much  they  may  be  undervalued  elsewhere,  when  they 
are  finely  bred  and  trained,  and  richly  caparisoned,  they  ex- 
hibit a  stateliness  and  bearing,  that  few  of  the  highest  bred 
horses  can  match. 


tnti  MULE.  40 i 

Bkeeuing  mules  in  the  United  States,  was  commen- 
ced with  much  spirit  in  some  of  the  New  England  states, 
soon  after  tlie  American  revokition.  The  object  was  not  to 
breed  them  for  their  own  use,  but  simply  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce. They  were  at  first  shipped  exclusively  to  the  West 
Indies,  and  afterwards  to  the  South  and  West,  for  employ- 
ment in  the  sugar  mills,  and  other  work  on  the  plantations. 
Indifferent  animals,  both  as  sires  and  dams,  were  used  at 
first,  as  anything  which  bore  the  name  of  mule,  then  com- 
manded a  ready  sale.  These  were  necessarily  inferior 
brutes,  and  viewed  with  almost  universal  derision  ;  and  being 
considered  the  type  of  their  race,  a  prejudice  was  excited 
against  them,  which  more  than  half  a  century  has  not  been 
sufficient  to  dispel.  Among  a  few  thinking  men  at  the 
North,  they  have  been  adopted  and  made  highly  useful  in  the 
various  duties  of  the  farm.  They  have  been  largely  intro- 
duced at  the  south  and  west,  but  principally  in  the  slave 
states,  where  the  management  of  the  team  devolves  upon  the 
ignorant  and  heedless.  It  is  there,  and  in  other  and  hotter 
climates,  that  the  superior  merits  of  the  mule  over  the  horse 
as  a  laboring  animal,  are  peculiarly  manifest.  In  many  instan- 
ces they  are  indifferently  fed,  hardly  worked,  and  greatly  ne- 
glected by  their  drivers,  and  yet  they  sustain  themselves  for 
years,  in  defiance  of  usage  that  would  annihilate  two  genera- 
tions of  horses.  Their  powers  have  been  largely  increased 
and  their  merits  improved,  by  the  introduction  of  some  of  the 
best  Maltese  and  Spanish  Jacks,  and  the  use  of  large,  blood 
mares.  The  propriety  of  this  course  is  seen  in  the  value  of 
the  product ;  for  while  some  of  the  inferior  brutes  are  un- 
saleable at  $50,  others  of  the  sa  >  e  age,  and  reared  under 
the  same  circumstances  of  keep  and  condition,  could  not  be 
purchased  for  $150. 

TJie  breedingy  rearing  and  management  of  mules  is  similar 
to  that  of  colts.  They  will  be  found,  as  much  as  horses,  to 
repay  generous  keep  and  attention  by  their  increased  and 
rapid  growth.  But  they  should  not  be  pampered  by  high 
feed,  as  it  not  only  has  a  tendency  to  produce  disease,  but  to 
form  habits  of  fastidiousness,  which  materially  lessens  their 
economical  feeding  in  after  life.  The  diseases  to  which 
mules  are  subjected  which  are  always  lew^  and  if  properly 
managed  they  will  seldom  or  ever  occur,  require  a  treatment 
like  that  of  horses.  The  breeding  from  mules  has  sometimes 
been  questioned,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  in  several 
instances.     Neither  the  sexual  development  or  propensities 


402  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

are  wanting,  but  they  are  seldom  indulged  with  effect.  Mr. 
Kilby  of  Virginia,  states  in  the  Farmer's  Register,  that  a 
mare  mule  brought  two  colts  got  by  a  young  horse,  which 
they  closely  resembled.  The  first  was  a  male,  and  died, 
apparently  with  staggers  which  no  treatment  could  arrest,  at 
six  months  old.  The  second  was  a  female,  from  the  same 
parents,  16  months  younger  than  the  first,  marked  like  the 
sire,  being  jet  black,  excepting  a  white  foot  and  star  in  the 
forehead,  and  died  at  a  year  old,  after  a  two  days  illness, 
notwithstanding  the  utmost  care  was  bestowed  upon  it.  Suc- 
cessful propagation  of  this  hybrid,  however,  beyond  the  first 
cross,  seems  to  be  incompatible  with  the  fixed  laws  of  nature. 

With  a  view  of  encouraging  the  substitution  of  mules  for 
a  part  of  the  horses  now  employed  in  American  husbandry, 
we  giv^e  the  following  testimony  from  experienced  individuals 
of  great  intelligence  and  careful  observation. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  MULE  OVER  HORSE  LABOR. 

The  official  report  of  an  agricultural  committee  in  South 
Carolina  in  1824,  says: — "The  annual  expense  of  keeping 
a  horse  is  equal  to  his  value  ;  that  a  horse  at  four  years  old 
would  not  often  bring  more  than  his  cost ;  that  two  mules 
could  be  raised  at  less  expense  than  one  horse  ;  is  fit  for  ser- 
vice earlier,  and  if  of  sufficient  size,  will  perform  as  much 
labor ;  and  if  attended  to  when  first  put  to  work,  his  gait  and 
habits  may  be  formed  to  suit  the  owner.  Mr.  Pomeroy,  who 
used  them  near  Boston  for  30  years,  and  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  have  had  more  labor  performed  by  them  probably  than 
any  person  in  New  England,  says  : — "I  am  convinced  the 
small  breed  of  mules  will  consume  less  in  proportion  to  the 
labor  they  are  capable  of  performing  than  the  larger  race, 
but  1  shall  confine  myself  to  the  latter  in  my  comparison, 
su(ih  as  stand  14i  to  16  hands,  and  are  capable  of  perform- 
ing any  work  a  horse  is  usually  put  to.  From  repeated 
experiments,  I  have  found  that  three  mules  of  this  descrip- 
tion, which  were  constantly  at  work,  consumed  about  the 
same  quantity  of  hay,  and  only  one-fourth  the  provender 
which  was  given  to  two  middling  size  coach-horses,  only  V 
moderately  worked.  I  am  satisfied  a  large  sized  mule  will 
not  consume  more  than  three-fifths  to  two  thirds  the  food  to 
keej)  him  in  good  order,  that  will  be  necessary  for  a  horse 
performing  tlie  same  labor.  The  expenses  of  shoeing  a 
mule  the  year  round,  does  not  exceed  one-third  that  of  the 
horse,  his  hoofs  being  harder,   more  horny,  and  so  slow  in 


THE    ASS.  403 

their  growth,  that  shoes  require  no  removal,  and  hold  on  till 
worn  out ;  and  the  wear  from  the  lightness  of  the  animal  is 
much  less.     Mules  have  been  lost  by  feeding  on  cut  straw, 
and  corn  meal ;  in  no  other  instance  have  1  known  disease 
in  them,  except  by  inflammation  of  the  intestines,  caused  by 
the  grossest  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  and  excessive  drinking 
cold  water,  after  severe  labor,  and  while  in  "a  high  state  of 
perspiration.     Tt  is  not  improbable  a  farmer  may  work  the 
same  team  of  mules  for  20  years  without  having  a  farrier's 
bill  presented  to  him.     In   my   experience   of  30  years,   I 
have  never  found  but  one  mule  inclined  to  be  vicious,  and  he 
might    have   been   easily    subdued    while    young.     I    have 
always  found  them  truer  pullers  and  quicker  travellers,  with 
a  load,  than  horses.     Their  vision  and   hearing  are   much 
more  accurate.     I  have  used  them  in  my  family  carriage,  in 
a  gig,  and  under  the  saddle  ;  and  have  never  known  one  to 
start  or  run  from  any  object  or  noise,  a  fault  in  the  horse  that 
continually   causes    the  maiming   and  death   of  numerous 
human  beings.     The  mule  is  more  steady  in  his  draught,  and 
less  likely  to  waste  his  strength  than  the  horse,  hence  more 
suitable  to  work   with   oxen,   and    as  he  walks  faster,  will 
habituate  them  to  a  faster  gait.      In  plowing   among  crops, 
his  feet  being  small  and  following  each  other  so  much  more 
in  a  line,  he   seldom  treads  down  the  ridgf  s  or  crops.     The 
facility  of  instructing  him  to  obey  impltci:ly  the  voice  of  the 
driver  is  astonishing.     The  best  plowed  tillage  land  I  ever 
saw,  I  have  had  performed  by  two  mules   tandem,  without 
lines  or  driver.    The  mule  is  capable  of  enduring  labor  in  a 
temperature  of  heat  that  would    be   destructive  to  a  horse. 
Although  a  large  mule  will  consume   something  over  one- 
half  the  food  of  a  horse,  yet  the  saving  in  shoeing,  farrying, 
and  insurance  against  diseases  and  accidents,  will  amount  to 
at  least  one-half.     In    addition,    the   owner  may   rely    with 
tolerable  certainty  on  the  continuance  of  his  mule  capital  for 
30  years  ;   whereas  the  horse  owner  must,  at  the  end  of  15 
years,  look  to  his  crops,  his  acres,  or  a  bank  for  the  renewal 
of  his.     The  longevity  of  a  mule  is  so  proverbial,  that  a 
purchaser  seldom  inquires  his  age.     Pliny  mentions  one  80 
years  old  ;  and  Dr.  Rees,  two  in  England,  that  reached  the 
age  of  70.     I  saw  one  performing  his  labor  in  a  cane-mill 
in  the    West    Indies,  which  the  owner  assured  me  was  40 
years  old.     I   have  now  a  mare-mule  2.5  years  old,  that  I 
have  had  in  constant  work   for  21   years.     She  has  often 
within  a  year  taken  a  ton  weight  in  a  wagon  to  Boston,  five 


404  AMERICAN    AGRICULTTTRE. 

miles,  and  manifests  no  diminution  of  her  powers.  A  neigh- 
bor has  one  28  years  old,  which  lie  would  not  exchange  for 
any  horse  in  the  country.  One  in  Maryland,  l\5  years  old, 
is  now  as  capable  of  labor  as  at  any  former  period." 

Mr.  Hood  of  Maryland,  in  the  American  Farmer,  esti- 
mates the  annual  expense  of  a  horse  for  12  months,  at  $44, 
and  that  of  a  mule  at  #22,  just  half  price,  and  his  working 
age  at  more  than  twice  that  of  the  horse,  and  that  too  after 
30  years'  experience  in  keeping  both.  A  correspondent  of 
the  Baltimore  Patriot,  asserts  that  "  Col.  John  E.  Howard 
had  a  pair  of  mules  that  worked  30  years,  after  which  they 
were  sold  to  a  carter  in  the  city,  and  performed  hard  service 
for  several  years  longer.  Many  mules  25  years  old,  and 
now  in  this  country,  perform  well.  Many  have  been  at  hard 
work  for  12  or  15  years,  and  would  now  sell  for  $100  each. 
They  are  not  subject  to  the  colt's  ailments,  the  glanders, 
heaves,  yellow-water,  and  colic,  like  horses  ;  and  seldom  are 
afflicted  with  spavin,  ring-bones,  or  hots,  and  they  will  not 
founder."  General  Shelby  says  "he  has  known  mules  to 
travel  10  miles  within  the  hour  in  light  harness,  and  has 
himself  driven  a  pair  40  miles  in  six  liours,  stopping  an  hour 
by  the  way."  Major  Shelby  of  Lexington,  sold  to  Mr. 
Preston  four  match  mules,  for  $1,000.  They  were  of  course 
very  superior  animals,  and  made  elegant  coach-horses.  Mr. 
Preston  has  driven  these  mules  80  miles  in  a  single  day 
without  injury  ;  and  they  proved  a  first-rate  team  for  many 
years.  Mr.  Ellicott  of  the  Patuxent  Furnaces,  says  : — "  Out 
of  about  100  mules  at  the  works,  we  have  not  lost  on  an 
average  one  in  two  years.  Bleeding  at  the  mouth  will  cure 
them  of  nearly  every  disease,  and  by  being  turned  out  on 
pasture,  they  will  recover  from  almost  every  accident.  1  do 
not  recollect  we  have  ever  had  a  wind-broken  one.  They 
are  scarcely  ever  defective  in  the  hoof,  and  though  kept 
shod,  it  is  not  as  important  as  with  the  horse.  Their  skin  is 
tougher  than  that  of  a  horse,  consequently,  they  are  not  as 
much  worried  by  flies,  nor  do  they  suffer  so  much  with  the 
heat  of  summer." 

To  the  foregoing  testimony  may  be  added  that  of  the  late 
Judge  Hinckley  of  Northampton,  Massachusetts;  a  shrewd 
and  close  observer  through  a  long  life,  reaching  to  84  years. 
He  bred  mules  at  an  early  day,  and  always  kept  a  team  of 
them  for  his  farm  work,  much  preferring  them  to  horses  for 
this  purpose,  after  an  experience  of  50  years.  He  had  a  pair 
nearly  30  years  old,  which,  in  light  pasturage  in  summer, 


THE  ASS.  405 

and  with  a  moderate  supply  of  hay  and  very  little  grain  in 
winter,  and  no  grooming,  performed  all  the  drudgery,  though 
he  kept  his  stable  full  of  horses  besides.  They  outlived 
several  successive  generations  of  horses,  and  though  the  lat- 
ter were  often  sick  and  out  of  condition,  the  mules  never 
were.  One  from  bis  stock,  45  years  old,  was  sold  for  the 
same  price  paid  for  a  lot  of  5'oung  mules,  he  being  at  that 
mature  age,  perfectly  able  to  perform  his  full  share  of 
labor. 

For  the  caravans  that  pass  over  the  almost  inaccessible 
ranges  which  form  the  continuation  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  the  extensive  arid  plains  that   lie  between  and  west  of 
them,  on  the  route  from  Santo  Fe  to  California,  mules  are 
the  only  beasts  of  burden  used  in  these  exhausting  and  peril- 
ous adventures.     Their   value  may  be  estimated  from  the 
comparative  prices  of  mules  and  horses ;  for  while  a  good 
horse  may  be  bought  for  ^1^10  to  $20,  a  good  mule  is  worth 
{$50  to  875.     Dr.   Lyman,    who   recently   passed   through 
those  regions,  informs  us  that  their  caravan  left  Santa  Fe 
with  about  150  mules,  15  or  20  horses,  all  beasts  of  burden, 
and  two  choice  blood  horses,  belonging  to  an  English  gentle- 
man, which  were  led  and  treated  with  peculiar  care.  On  the 
route,  all  the  working-horses  died  from  exhaustion  and  suf- 
fering ;  the  two  bloods  that  had  been  so  carefully  attended, 
but  just  survived  ;  yet  of  the  whole  lot  of  mules,  but  eight  or 
ten  gave  out.     A  mule  36  years  of  age  was  as  hardy,  strong, 
enduring,  and  performed  as  hard  labor,  as  any  one  in  the 
caravan.      When  thirst  compelled  them  to  resort  for  succes- 
sive days  to  the  saline  waters,  which  are  the  only  ones  fur- 
nished   by  those  dry  and  sterile  plains,  the  horses  were  at 
once  severely,  and  not  unfrequently,  fatally  affected  ;  while 
the  mules,  though  suffering  greatly  from  the   change,  yet 
seldom  were  so  much  injured  as  to  require  any  remission  of 
their  labor.     The  mules  sent  to  the  Mexican  possessions 
from  our  western  states,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and 
Kentucky,  are  considered  of  much  more  value  than  such  as 
are  bred  from  the  native  (usually  wild)  mares.     The  differ- 
ence probably  arises,  in  part,  from  the  Mexicans  using  Jacks 
inferior  to  those  so  highly  improved  of  late  years  by  our 
western  citizens.    Mare  mules  are  estimated  in  those  regions 
at  one-third  more  than  horse  mules.     The  reason   assigned 
for  this  is,  that  after  a  day's   journey  of  excessive  fatigue, 
there  is  a  larger  quantity  of  blood  secreted  in  the  bladder, 
which  the  female,  owing  to  her  larger  passage,  voids  at  once 


406  AMERICAN     AeRICULTURE. 

and  without  much  apparent  suffering,  while  the  male  does 
not  get  rid  of  it,  frequently,  till  after  an  hour  of  considerable 
pnin.  The  effect  of  this  difference  is  seen  in  the  loss  of  flesh 
and  strength  in  the  male,  to  an  extent  far  beyond  that  of  the 
fenmle.  The  universal  method  of  reducing  refractory  mules 
in  the  northern  Mexican  possessions,  is  for  the  person  to 
grasp  them  (irmly  by  the  ears,  while  another  whips  them 
severely  on  the  fore-legs  and  belly. 

Estiinaied  annual  saving  to  the  United  States  from  the  em- 
ployment  of  mules  in  the  place  of  horses. — To  sum  up  the 
advantages  of  working  m  ;les  over  horses,  we  shall  have  as 
advantage  :  1.  They  are  more  easily,  surely,  and  cheaply 
raised.  2.  They  are  maintained,  after  commencing  work, 
for  much  less  than  the  cost  of  keeping  horses.  3.  They  are 
are  not  subject  to  many  of  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  and  to 
others,  only  in  a  mitigated  degree,  and  oven  these  are  easily 
cured  in  the  mule.  4.  They  attain  a  greater  age,  and  their 
average  working  years  are  probably  twice  that  of  the 
horse. 

In  1840,  there  were  reported  to  be  4,335,669  horses  and 
mules  in  the  Union,  no  discrimination  having  been  made 
between  them.  Suppose  the  total  number  at  the  present 
time  is  4,650,000,  and  that  of  these  650,000  are  mules,  and 
if  we  deduct  01  e-fourth  supj)Osed  to  be  required  fro  the  pur- 
poses of  breed,  fancy  horses,  &c.,  we  shall  then  have 
3,000,000  horses,  whose  places  may  be  equally  welt  supplied 
by  the  same  number  of  mules.  We  have  seen  that  Mr.  Hood 
of  Maryland,  estimates  the  expense  of  a  working  horse  at 
$44  per  annum,  (not  an  over  estimate  for  the  Atlantic 
states.)  while  that  of  the  mules  is  $2*2.  The  difference  is 
$22,  which  it  is  proj)er  to  reduce  to  meet  the  n)uch  lower 
rate  of  keeping  at  the  west.-  if  we  i)ut  the  difference  at  $10, 
we  shall  find  the  saving  in  the  keep,  shoeing,  farriery,  &c., 
by  s\ibstituting  mules  for  the  3,000,000  horses  that  can  be 
dispensed  with,  will  be  $30,000,000  per  annum.  But  this  is 
not  all.  The  working  age  of  the  horse  will  not  exceed  an 
average  of  eight  years,  while  that  of  the  mule  is  probably 
over  16.  To  the  difference  of  keep  then,  must  be  added  the 
annual  waste  of  the  caj)ital  invested  in  the  animal.  A  mule 
is  more  cheaply  raised  to  working  age  than  a  iiorse,  but 
allowing  them  to  cost  equally,  we  .^hall  have  the  horse 
exhausting  one-eighth  or  threc-tvventy-fourths  of  his  capital 
annually  for  his  decay,  when  the  mule  is  using  up  but  one- 
sixteenth  ;  and  if  we  allow  $48  as  the  first  cost  of  both  ani- 


THE  ASS.  407 

mals,  we  shall  find  the  horae  wasting  $6  annually  for  this 
item,  while  the  mule  deteriorates  but  S3,  making  an  addi- 
tional item  of  89,000,000  more  ;  and  nn  aggregate  of 
$39,000,000  as  the  annual  saving  to  the  United  States  hy 
substituting  good  mules  for  three-fourths  of  the  horses  now 
used  in  this  country.  When  will  our  farmers  have  the  good 
sense  to  make  this  change?  It  may  bo  fn'rly  answered, 
when  they  shall  prefer  utility,  and  int«>rrbf,  ana  a  yi^^t  taste, 
to  a  diseased  fancy  ;  for  though  we  admit  Iho  su})eriority  in 
appearance  of  the  race  of  horses  over  niuics,  we  deny  that  a 
bad  horse  looks  beiter  or  even  as  well  as  a  good  mule  ;  and 
with  the  same  keep  and  attention,  a  good  mule  will  outwork 
and  outlook  most  horses  of  any  breed. 

The  comparative  economy  of  horse  and  ox  labor. — 
This  is  a  question  which  has  been  often  discussed,  and  when 
with  candor,  the  conclusion  generally  has  been  in  favor  of  ox 
labor.  The  different  employments,  the  variety  of  situation, 
the  season  and  the  kind  of  stock  reared  on  the  farm,  are  all 
questions  which  should  be  fully  considered  in  arriving  at 
their  true  comparative  advantages.  Most  farmers  would 
find  it  for  their  interest  to  keep  teams  of  each,  where  there  is 
employment  for  more  than  one  ;  or  if  this  be  not  the  case, 
the  preference  should  be  given  to  that  which  is  best  suited  in 
all  respects  to  their  particular  position.  If  work  upon  the 
road  is  required,  a  horse  team  will  generally  be  best.  Their 
superiority  will  consist  principally  in  their  greater  speed,  for 
even  with  a  heavy  load,  they  will  be  able  to  trot  occasion- 
ally, and  when  driven  without  it,  they  may  increase  their 
pace  to  nearly  double  the  natural  gait  of  the  ox.  This  will 
amount  to  a  large  annual  saving  in  the  time  of  the  driver 
when  steadily  employed.  The  same  is  true  when  removing 
manure  or  crops  on  the  farm  to  remote  distances,  over  a 
smooth  surface,  which  admits  of  trotting  with  the  empty 
wagon.  Harrowing  ought  always  to  be  done  with  a  quick 
team,  as  a  violent  stroke  of  the  teeth,  breaks  the  clods,  ahd 
pulverizes  the  earth  much  better  than  when  slowly  dragged 
along.  But  we  assume  in  this  comparison,  that  oxen  shall 
not  only  be  well  adapted  to  their  work  by  their  natural  for- 
mation like  the  Hereford,  the  Devon  and  others  equally  good, 
but  that  they  be  also  well  broke,  well  managed,  acci.stomed 
to  quick  movements,  and  as  well  fed  and  looked  after  as 
horses.  We  shall  then  find  their  walk  equal  to  a  quick 
horse  team,  and  that  in  this  case,  the  horse  will  have  no 
advantage  over  the  ox  in  harrowing.     For  plowing,  the 


408  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

teams  are  on  a  par,  as  a  good  ox  team  will  do  as  much  in  a 
day  in  cool  weather,  as  horses.  Where  the  loads  can  be 
tipped,  as  in  unloading  manure  in  the  field,  or  roots  through 
a  scuttle,  or  in  heaps,  the  ox  cart,  or  the  single  two-wheel 
horse-cart  is  best,  as  all  the  labor  of  throwing  out  by  hand  is 
avoided. 

The  situation  of  the  farm  may  materially  affect  this  esti- 
mate. In  a  warm  climate,  horses,  and  more  especially 
mules,  would  be  more  serviceable  than  oxen,  as  they  are 
capable  of  enduring  much  greater  heat  with  impunity.  If 
the  farm  be  small  and  convenient  to  market,  the  labor  may 
in  general,  be  best  accomplished  by  oxen,  as  little  travelling 
will  be  required.  So  too,  if  the  land  be  stony  or  rough,  the 
plowing  and  harrowing  will  be  more  kindly  and  patiently 
done  by  oxen  than  by  spirited  horses.  Other  considerations 
will  suggest  themselves  as  affecting  the  comparative  eco- 
nomy of  this  labor. 

The  time  of  icork  is  to  be  fully  considered.  If  much  and 
heavy  work  be  required  in  summer,  as  is  often  the  case  in 
plowing  extensive  wheat  farms,  horses  are  to  be  preferred  ; 
yet  if  the  ox-team  be  started  at  early  dawn,  and  worked 
briskly  four  or  five  hours,  and  then  turned  out  to  rest  with  a 
supply  of  suitable  food,  they  may  again  commence  when  the 
extreme  heat  has  abated,  and  accomplish  a  day's  work  that 
few  horses  will  exceed.  During  the  season  of  muddy  roads, 
the  horse  with  his  broad,  compact  foot  and  longer  leg,  has  a 
decided  advantage  over  the  ox.  If  tlie  ox  draws  by  the  yoke 
(which  on  the  whole  is  the  best  mode,)  he  is  liable  to  a  sore 
neck  when  working  in  wet  or  snowy  weather,  and  at  such 
times  he  is  over  matched  by  his  competitor.  This  is  par- 
tially remedied  by  applying  a  decoction  of  white  or  yellow  oak 
bark. 

Tliekind  of  stock  raised  on  the  farm  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  this  qtiestion.  Some  farms  are  devoted  to  rearing 
hojjses,  and  some  exchisively  to  rearing  cattle.  These  some- 
times remain  on  hand  aflcr  they  arc  tit  for  market,  iVoin  the 
want  of  a  prolitab'e  demand.  They  can  then  be  employed 
not  only  without  injury,  but  in  consequence  of  the  thorough 
training  thus  secured,  with  positive  benollt  to  their  future 
value.  Even  if  intended  for  the  shamble^,  the  well  devoK 
oped  ox  may  advanta<Toous!y  l)e  put  to  light  work  at  three, 
alter  which,  it  may  l)e  gradually  increased  till  he  is  six  or 
eight,  and  during  all  this  time  he  will  be  improving,  and  afiter^ 
doing  an  early  spring's  work,  he  may  then  ])e  turned  on  to 


THE  ASS.  409 

good  pasture,  and  if  followed  with  proper  stall  feeding,  he 
will  in  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  or  spring,  yield  a  tender, 
better  flavored  and  more  profitable  carcass,  than  can  be  pro- 
cured  by  any  other  mode  of  fattening. 

The  tirst  cost  of  oxen  is  less  than  that  of  horses,  and  they 
are  at  all  times  cheaply  reared  on  the  coarser  herbage  of  the 
farm.  The  expense  of  working-gear,  tackle  and  shoeing,  is 
much  less  than  with  horses.  They  are  subject  to  fewer  dis- 
eases, and  these  are  more  within  the  reach  of  ordinary  medi- 
cines. The  cost  of  food  is  also  less,  and  while  the  horse 
is  depreciating,  the  ox  is  increasing  in  value  till  eight  or  nine 
years  old.  Accidents  are  less  frequent  with  oxen,  from  their 
slower  movements ;  and  when  they  occur,  the  ox  may  be 
turned  out  to  fatten,  and  still  be  worth  as  much  for  this  pur- 
pose as  for  the  yoke.  A  permanent  injury  to  the  horse,  is 
perhaps  a  total  loss  of  the  beast,  with  a  large  farrier's  bill  in 
adddition,  for  which  there  is  nothing  to  liquidate  it  but  the 
hide.  The  small  farmer  can  make  out  a  most  serviceable 
team,  by  putting  a  single  horse  before  a  yoke  of  cattle.  If 
well  trained,  they  will  soon  accommodate  themselves  to  each 
others  pace,  and  work  as  advantageously  together,  as  an 
entire  team  of  either  animals  would  do  alone.  Bulls  are  fre- 
quently put  to  the  draught,  and  when  they  have  not  other 
services  that  fully  test  their  powers,  they  cannot  be  better 
employed.  Heifers  and  cows  are  sometimes  worked,  but 
hitherto  they  have  not  been  used  to  any  extent  in  this  country. 
In  the  absence  of  other  animals,  they  might  perform  light 
work  to  advantage,  but  severe  labor  would  stint  their  growth 
or  impair  their  milk  beyond  the  benefit  derived  from  it.  The 
spayed  heifer  is  an  exception  to  the  foregoing  remark,  and  by 
many,  is  esteemed  even  more  useful  than  an  ox  of  equal 
weight.  We  have  no  definite  statements  of  the  comparative 
money  value  of  the  labor  of  oxen  and  horses.  But  in  England, 
repeated  trials  have  been  made,  and  while  some  have  found 
no  advantage  in  the  employment  of  oxen  over  horses,  others 
have  proved  them  decidedly  superior.  One  Anglesey  farmer, 
found  in  an  experience  of  three  years,  with  12  horses  and  20 
oxen,  which  accomplished  an  equal  amount  of  work,  that  he 
had  saved  by  the  latter  236  pounds,  or  nearly  $1180.  This 
result  proves  the  subject  to  be  one  of  sufficient  importance,  to 
justify  the  closest  investigation  of  every  farmer  to  deter- 
mine'for  himself,  the  comparative  value  of  ox,  horse  or  mule 
labor. 

R 


410  AMERICAN    AGHICULTUKE. 


CHAPTER   XX. 


SWINE. 

The  hog  is  a  cosmopolite  of  almost  every  zone,  though  his 
natural  haunts,  like  those  of  the  hippopotamus,  the  elephant, 
the  rhinoceros  and  most  of  the  thick-skinned  animals,  are 
in  warm  climates.  They  are  most  abundant  in  China,  the 
East  Indies  and  the  immense  range  of  Islands  which  extend 
over  the  whole  Southern  and  Pacific  Oceans  ;  but  they  are 
also  numerous  throughout  Europe,  from  its  Southern  coast  to 
the  Russian  dominions  within  the  Arctic.  In  the  United 
States,  they  have  been  an  object  of  attention  since  its  earliest 
settlements,  and  whenever  a  profitable  market  could  be  found 
for  pork  abroad,  it  has  been  exported  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
demand.  For  20  years  following  the  commencement  of  the 
general  European  wars,  soon  alter  the  organization  of  our 
National  government,  it  was  a  comparatively  large  article  of 
export ;  but  since  then,  exports  to  any  extent,  have  not  been 
justified,  till  within  the  last  two  years,  since  which,  a  mate- 
rial reduction  in  the  British  import  duty  on  pork,  lard,  hams, 
beef,  &c.,  has  again  brought  it  up  as  a  prominent  article  of 
commerce  with  that  country.  The  recent  use  which  has 
been  made  of  the  carcass  in  converting  it  into  lard  oil,  has 
still  further  increased  its  consumption.  Swine  are  reared  in 
every  part  of  the  Union,  and  when  properly  managed,  always 
at  a  fair  profit.  At  the  extreme  north,  in  the  neighborhood 
ef  large  markets,  and  on  such  of  the  southern  plantations  as 
are  particularly  suited  to  sugar  or  rice,  they  are  not  profita- 
ble, beyond  the  number  required  for  the  consumption  of  the 
coarse  or  refuse  food  produced.  While  pork  remains  at  a 
moderate  price,  it  can  only  be  advantageously  raised  on  a 
large  scale,  on  good  soils,  as  it  is  such  only  that  yield  heavy 
crops  of  grain,  roots,  &c.  which  are  essential  to  fattening  it. 
Swine  are  profitable  in  connexion  with  a  dairy  or  orchard,  as 
with  little  additional  food  besides  what  is  thus  aflforded,  they 


SWINE.  411 

can  be  put  into  good  condition  for  the  butcher.  It  is  on  the 
rich  bottoms,  and  other  lands  of  the  west,  where  Indian  corn 
is  raised  in  profusion,  and  at  small  expense,  that  they  can  be 
reared  in  the  the^greatest  numbers  and  yield  the  largest  profit. 
The  Sciota,  Miami,  Wabash,  Illinois  and  other  vallies  ;  and 
extensive  tracts  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and 
some  adjoining  states,  have  for  many  years,  taken  the  lead  in 
the  production  of  swine  ;  and  it  is  probable  their  climate  and 
soil,  which  is  peculiarly  suited  to  their  rapid  growth,  as  well 
as  th'it  of  their  appropriate  food,  will  enable  them  forever  to 
remain  the  leading  pork  producers  of  the  North  American 
continent. 

The  bukuds  of  Swine  cultivated  in  this  country  are  numer- 
ous, and  like  our  native  cattle,  they  embrace  many  of  the  best, 
and  a  few  of  the  worst  to  be  found  among  the  species.  Great 
attention  has  for  many  years,  been  paid  to  their  improvement 
in  the  eastern  states,  and  nowhere  are  there  better  specimens 
than  in  many  of  their  herds.  This  spirit  has  rapidly  extended 
westward  and  southward,  and  among  many  of  the  intelli- 
gent farmers,  who  make  them  a  leading  object  of  attention, 
on  the  rich  corn  grounds  of  the  west,  the  swine  have  attained 
a  considerable  degree  of  excellence.  This  does  nut  consist 
in  the  introduction  and  perpetuity  of  any  distinct  races,  so 
much  as  in  the  breeding  up  to  a  desirable  size  and  aptitude 
for  fattening,  from  such  meritorious  individuals  of  any  breed 
or  their  crosses,  as  come  within  their  reach.  The  Byejield 
som^v  30  years  ago,  was  a  valuable  hog  in  the  Eastern  states, 
and  did  much  good  among  the  species  generally.  They  are 
white,  with  fine  curly  hair,  well  made  and  compact,  moderate 
in  size  and  length,  with  broad  backs,  and  at  15  months,  attain- 
ing some  300  to  350  lbs.  nett.  The  Bedford  or  Wohurn  is  a 
breed  originating  with  the  Duke  of  Bcdtbrd,  on  his  estate  at 
VVoburn,  and  brought  to  their  perfection  probably,  by  judicious 
crosses  of  the  China  hog,  on  some  of  the  best  English  swine. 
A  pair  was  sent  by  the  Duke  to  this  country,  as  a  present  to 
Gen.  Washington,  but  they  were  dishonestly  sold  by  the  mes- 
senger in  Maryland,  in  which  state  and  Pennsylvania,  they 
were  productive  of  much  good  at  an  early  day,  by  their  exten- 
sive distribution  through  ditlerent  states.  Several  other 
importations  of  this  breed  have  been  made  at  various  times, 
and  especially  by  the  spirited  masters  of  the  Liverpool  packet 
ships,  in  the  neighborhood  of  New-York.  They  are  a  large, 
spotted  animal,  well  made  and  inclining  to  early  maturity  and 
fattening.     They  are  an  exceedingly  valuable  hog,  but   arc 


412J  AHERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

nearly  extinct  both  in  England  and  this  country,  as  a  breed. 
The  Leicesters  are  a  large,  white  hog,  generally  coarse  in  the 
bone  and  hair,  great  caters  and  slow  in  maturing.  Some 
varieties  of  this  breed,  differ  essentially  in  these  particulars, 
and  mature  early  on  a  moderate  amount  of  food.  The  crosses 
with  smaller  compact  breeds,  are  generally  thrifty,  desirable 
animals.  Other  large  breeds'  deserving  commendation  in  this 
country,  are  the  large  Miami  white,  the  Yorkshire  white  and 
the  Kenihcorth,  each  frequently  attaining  when  dressed,  a 
weight  of  600  to  800  lbs.  The  Chinese  is  among  the  smaller 
varieties,  and  without  doubt,  is  the  parent  stock  of  tlie  best 
European  and  American  swine.  They  necessarily  vary  in 
appearance,  size,  shape  and  color,  from  the  diversity  in  the 
style  of  breeding,  and  the  various  regions  from  which  they 
are  derived.  But  all  the  Chinese  seem  to  have  these  proper- 
ties  in  common.  They  are  fine-boned,  short  and  very  com- 
pact, with  bellies  almost  touching  the  ground,  light  head  and 
ears,  fine  muzzle,  of  great  docility  and  quietness,  small  feeders 
and  producing  much  meat  for  the  quantity  of  food  consumed. 
From  the  rapidity  with  which  generations  of  this  animal  are 
multiplied,  the  variety  of  other  breeds  on  which  they  are 
crossed,  and  the  treatment  to  which  they  are  subjected,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  their  descendants  should  rapidly  assume 
distinct  features.  From  these,  we  have  not  only  a  strong 
mixture  of  blood  in  the  best  class  of  large  breeds,  but  in  such 
of  the  smaller  as  have  any  pretensions  to  merit,  they  consti- 
tute the  greater  part  of  the  improvement.  Such  are  the  Nea- 
jwlitan,  the  Essex  half-black,  the  Grass  breed  and  some 
others. 

The  Berkshires  are  an  ancient  English  breed,  tbrmerly  of 
large  size,  slow  feeders,  and  late  in  maturing.  Their  color 
was  a  buff  or  sandy  ground  with  large  black  spots,  and  the 
feet,  lower  part  of  the  legs  and  tuft  on  the  tail,  buff.  The 
latter  color  has  given  place,  in  most  of  the  modern  race,  to 
white  in  the  same  parts.  This  variation,  with  the  more 
important  ones  of  early  maturity  and  good  feeding  properties, 
are  by  Professor  Low,  ascribed  to  a  Chinese  cross,  which 
has  added  the  only  characteristic  in  which  they  were  before 
deficient.  They  were  first  introduced  and  reared  as  a  dis- 
tinct breed  in  this  country,  by  Mr.  Brentnall,  of  Orange  Co„ 
and  Mr.  Hawes,  of  Albany,  N.  Y.  In  their  hands,  and 
those  of  other  skillful  breeders,  their  merits  were  widely 
promulgated.  No  other  breeds  have  been  so  extensively 
diflUsed  in  the  United  States,  within  comparatively  so  brief 


BWINE.  413 

a  period,  as  the  Berkshires,  since  1832,  They  have  produced 
a  marked  improvement  in  many  of  our  former  races.  They 
weigh  variously,  from  250  to  400  lbs,  nett,  at  16  months, 
according  to  their  food,  and  style  of  breeding;  and  some  fiiU- 
grown  have  dressed  to  more  than  800  lbs.  They  particu- 
larly excel  in  their  hams,  which  are  round,  full  and  heavy, 
and  contain  a  large  proportion  of  lean, tender  and  juicy  meat 
of  the  best  flavor.  None  of  our  improved  breeds  aflford 
long,  coarse  hair  or  bristles;  and  it  is  a  gi-atifying  evidence 
of  our  decided  improvements  in  this  department  of  domestic 
animals,  that  our  brush-makers  are  under  the  necessity  of 
importing  most  of  what  they  use  from  Russia  and  Northern 
Europe.  This  improvement  is  manifest  not  only  in  the  hair 
but  in  tiie  skin,  which  is  soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  in  the 
liner  bones,  shorter  head,  with  upright  ears,  dishing  face, 
delicate  muzzle  and  mild  eye;  and  in  the  short  legs,  low 
flanks,  deep  and  wide  chest,  broad  back  and  early  maturity. 
Breeding. — Swine  should  not  be  allowed  to  breed  before 
12  or  15  months  old,  unless  the  animals  are  large  and  coarse, 
when  they  may  be  put  to  it  somewhat  younger.  Not  only 
choice  Individuals,  but  such  as  are  well  descended,  should 
be  seU^cted  for  tlie  purpose  of  breeding.  The  sow  should  be 
iu  good  condition,  but  not  fat,  nor  approaching  to  it,  and  a 
proper  degree  of  exercise  is  essential  to  the  development  of 
the  foetus  and  the  health  of  the  parent;  for  which  reason  she 
should  have  an  extended  range  connected  with  her  pen. 
The  sow  goes  with  young  about  114  days.  A  week  before 
her  time  comes  round,  a  comfortable,  quiet  place  should  be 
prepared  for  her  under  cover,  and  well  protected  from  cold, 
if  the  weather  be  severe,  or  if  warm,  a  range  in  a  pasture 
with  an  open  shed  to  retire  to,  is  sufficient.  Too  much 
litter  for  bedding  must  be  avoided,  and  no  change  or  dis- 
tJirbance  of  the  sow  permitted  till  two  or  three  weeks  after 
pigging,  as  the  restlessness  thereby  produced  may  result  in 
the  loss  of  the  pigs.  The  sow  should  be  fed  only  with  a 
small  quantity  of  the  lightest  food  or  thin  gruel,  for  two  or 
three  days,  nor  put  on  full  feed  for  a  week.  If  inclined  to 
eat  her  pigs,  she  should  be  fed  two  or  three  times  with  raw 
pork  or  fresh  meat.  The  pigs  may  be  taught  to  crack  oats 
or  soaked  corn  after  three  weeks,  and  if  provided  with  a 
trough  inaccessible  to  the  dam,  they  will  soon  learn  to  feed 
on  milk  and  other  food,  preparatory  to  weaning.  This  may 
take  place  when  they  are  8  or  10  weeks  old,  and  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  sow,  let  one  or  two  remain  with  her  a  few  days 


414  AMERICAN    AGRirULTURF. 

longer,  and  when  finally  removed,  if  her  bag  appears  to  be 
lull,  they  may  be  allowed  to  drain  the  milk  after  20  or  30 
hours.  The  sow  should  be  restricted  to  a  light,  dry  diet  for 
a  few  days. 

Raisiivg,  feeding  and  fattening. — There  are  but  two 
objects  in  keeping  swine, — for  breeding,  and  for  slaughter, — 
and  their  management  is  consequently  simple.  Those 
designed  for  breeding  should  be  kept  in  growing  condition, 
on  light  food,  and  have  every  advantage  for  exercise.  Such 
as  are  destined  exclusively  for  fattening,  ought  to  be  steadily 
kept  to  the  object.  It  is  the  usual  practice  in  this  country, 
to  let  spring  pigs  run  at  large  for  the  first  15  months,  with 
such  food  as  is  convenient,  and  if  fed  at  all,  it  is  only  to  keep 
them  in  moderate  growth  till  the  second  autumn.  They  are 
then  put  up  to  fatten,  and  in  the  course  of  60  or  90  days,  are 
fed  ofl'  and  slaughtered.  During  this  brief  period,  they  gain 
from  50  to  100  per  cent,  more  of  dressed  weight,  than  in  the 
15  or  18  months  preceding;  nor  even  then  do  they  yield  a 
greater  average  weight,  than  is  often  attained  by  choice, 
thrifty  pigs,  which  have  been  well  fed  from  weaning  to  the 
age  of  7  or  8  months.  Three  pigs  of  the  Bedford  breed, 
when  precisely  7h  months  old,  dressed  230,  235  and  23SJ 
lbs.  Two  of  the  Berkshire  and  Leicester  breeds,  at  9 
months,  dressed  304  and  310  lbs.  Three  others  of  the  Berk- 
shire and  Grass  breeds,  7  months  and  27  days  old,  weighed 
240,  250  and  257  lbs.  nett.  Innumerable  instances  could  be 
adduced  of  similar  weights,  gained  within  the  same  time, 
with  a  good  breed  of  animals  under  judicious  treatment. 
We  have  no  one  accurate  account  of  the  food  consumed,  so 
as  to  determine  the  relative  profit  of  short  or  long  feeding. 
But  that  an  animal  must  consume  much  more  in  18  or  20 
months  to  produce  the  same  quantity  of  dressed  meat,  which 
is  made  by  others  of  7  or  8  months,  does  not  admit  of  a  doubt. 
We  have  seen  that  an  ox  requires  but  little  more  than  double 
tl»e  quantity  of  fowl  to  fatten,  that  is  necessary  for  sup[)orting 
existence.  If  we  apply  this  principle  to  swine,  and  state  the 
quantity  of  food  which  will  fatten  the  pig  rapidly,  to  be  three 
times  as  great  as  for  the  support  of  lite,  we  shall  find  that 
the  pig  will  fatten  in  7  months,  on  the  same  food  he  would 
consume  to  keep  him  alive  for  21.  This  is  based  on  the 
supposition  that  both  animals  are  of  equal  size.  But  the  pig 
that  matures  and  is  slaughtered  at  7  months,  has  only  a 
moderate  capacity  for  eating.  During  the  early  stages  of 
his  growth,  his  size  and  the  consequent  incapacity  of  the 


SWINE.  415 

digestive  organs,  prevent  tlie  consumption  of*  tlie  same  quan- 
tity which  the  hirgcr  animal  requires;  and  his  accumulating 
fat,  his  limited  respiration,  consequent  upon  tlic  compression 
of  his  lungs,  and  his  indisposition  to  exorcise,  all  conspire  to 
keep  the  consumption  of  food  within  the  smallest  possible 
limit.  This  result,  in  the  absence  of  any  experiment,  must 
be  conjectural  entirely;  but  we  believe  that  experiments  will 
show  that  of  two  thrifty  pigs  fiom  the  same  litter, one  of  which 
is  properly  fed  to  his  utmost  capacity  for  7  months,  and  the 
other  fed  with  precisely  double  the  quantity  of  similar  food  for 
21  months,  the  first  will  yield  more  carcass  and  of  a  better 
and  more  profitable  quality  than  the  latter,  which  has  con- 
sumed 100  per  cent,  the  most.  The  food  is  only  one  item 
in  this  calculation.  The  oldest  requires  the  most  attention, 
is  liable  to  more  accidents  and  disease,  liesides  the  loss  of 
interest.  We  are  necessarily  forced  to  the  conclusion,  that 
by  tar  the  cheapest  mode  of  wintering  pigs  is  in  the  pork- 
barrel.  We  can  readily  anticipate  one  objection  to  this 
practice,  which  is  the  want  of  food  at  this  season  of  the  year 
to  fatten  them.  This  can  be  obviated  l)y  reserving  enough 
of  the  previous  year's  grain,  to  keep  the  animal  in  a  rapidly 
thriving  state  till  the  next  crop  matures  sufficiently  to  feed. 

In  the  rich  corn  regions,  on  its  beginning  to  ripen,  as  it 
does  in  August,  the  fields  are  fenced  off  into  suitable  lots,  and 
large  herds  are  successively  turned  into  them,  to  consume  the 
grain  at  their  leisure.  They  waste  nothing  except  the  stalks, 
which,  in  that  region  of  plenty,  are  not  considered  of  much 
value,  and  they  are  useful  as  manure  for  succeeding  crops, 
and  whatever  grain  is  left  by  them,  -leaner  droves  which 
follow,  will  readily  glean.  Peas,  early  buckwheat,  and 
apples,  may  be  fed  on  the  ground  in  the  same  way.  But  we 
believe  there  is  an  improvement  in  the  character  of  the 
grain  from  a  few  months'  keeping,  which  is  fully  equivalent 
to  the  interest  of  the  money  and  cost  of  storage.  If  fatten- 
ed early  in  the  season,  they  will  consume  less  food  to  make 
an  equal  amount  of  flesh  that  in  colder  weather,  they  will 
require  less  attention,  and  generally  early  pork  will  command 
the  highest  price  in  market. 

It  is  most  economical  to  provide  the  swine  with  a  fine 
clover  pasture  to  run  in  during  the  spring  and  sunnner,  and 
they  ought  also  to  have  access  to  the  orchard,  to  pick  up  all 
the  unripe  and  superfluous  fruit  that  falls.  They  should  also 
have  the  wash  of  the  house  and  the  dairy,  to  which  add  meal, 
and  sour  in  large  tubs  or  barrels.     Not  less  than  one-third, 


416  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE. 

and  perhaps  more,  of  the  whole  grain  fed  to  swine,  is  saved 
by  grinding  and  cooking  or  souring.  Yet  care  must  be 
observed  that  the  souring  be  not  carried  so  far  as  to  injure 
the  food  by  putrefaction.  A  mixture  of  meal  and  water, 
with  the  addition  of  yeast  or  such  remains  of  a  former 
fermentation,  as  adhere  to  the  side  or  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
and  exposure  to  a  temperature  between  68"  and  77°  will 
produce  immediate  fermentation.  In  this  process  there  are 
live  stages.  The  saccharine,  by  which  the  starch  and  gum 
are  converted  into  sugar;  the  vinous,  which  changes  the  sugar 
into  alcohol;  the  mucilaginons,  sometimes  taking  the  place 
of  the  vinous,  and  occurs  when  the  sugar  solution,  or  fer- 
menting principle  is  weak,  producing  a  slimy,  glutinous  pro- 
duct; the  acetic,  forming  vinegar,  and  the  livtrefactive,  wliich 
destroys  all  the  nutritive  principles  and  converts  them  into  a 
poison.  The  precise  point  in  fermentation  when  the  food 
becomes  most  profitable  for  feeding,  has  not  yet  been  satis- 
factorily determined;  but  that  it  should  stop  short  of  the 
putrefactive,  and  probably  the  acetic,  is  certain. 

The  roots  for  &.ttening  animals  ought  to  be  washed  and 
steamed  or  boiled,  and  when  not  intended  to  be  fermented, 
the  meal  ought  always  to  be  scalded  with  the  hot  roots.  Such 
a  quantity  of  salt  as  will  not  scour,  may  be  added  to  every 
preparation  for  swine.  Potatos  are  the  best  roots  tor  swine; 
then  parsneps,  orange  er  red  carrots,  white  or  Belgian,  sugar 
beets,  mangold  wurzel,  ruta-bagas,  and  the  white  turnips,  in 
the  order  mentioned.  The  nutritive  properties  of  turneps 
are  diffused  through  so  large  a  bulk,  that  we  doubt  if  they 
can  ever  be  fed  to  fattening  swine  with  advantage;  and  they 
will  barely  sustain  life  when  fed  to  them  uncooked.  There 
is  a  great  loss  in  feeding  roots  to  fattening  swine,  without 
cooking.  When  unprepared  grain  is  fed,  it  should  l>e  on  a  full 
stomach,  to  prevent  imperfect  mastication,  and  the  consequent 
loss  of  food.  It  is  better  indeed  to  have  it  always  before 
tUem.  The  animal  machine  is  an  expensive  one  to  keep  in 
motion,  and  it  should  be  the  object  of  the  farmer,  to  put  his 
food  in  the  most  available  condition,  for  its  immediate  con- 
version into  fat  and  muscle.  Swine  ought  to  be  kept  per- 
fectly dry  and  clean,  and  provided  with  a  warm  shelter,  to 
which  they  can  retire  at  pleasure.  This  will  greatly  hasten, 
the  fattening  and  economize  the  food.  A  hog  ought  to  h.ive^ 
three  apartments,  one  each  for  sleeping,  eating,  and  evacua- 
tions, of  which  the  last  ought  to  occupy  the  lowest,  and  the 
first  the  highest  level,  so  that  nothing  shall  be  drained,  and 


SWiNE.  417 

as  little  carried  into  the  first  two  as  possible.  They  must 
be  regularly  fed  three  times  a  day,  and  if  there  is  a  surplus, 
it  must  be  removed  at  once.  If  they  are  closely  confined  in 
pens,  give  them  as  much  charcoal  twice  a  week  as  they  will 
eat.  This  corrects  any  tendency  to  disorders  of  the  stomach. 
Rotten  w^ood  is  an  imj)crfect  substitute  for  charcoal.  Graves, 
scraps  or  cracklings,  as  they  are  variously  callel,  the  residuum 
of  rough  lard  or  tallow  after  expressing  the  fat,  are  a  good 
change  and  an  economical  food.  Some  animal  food,  although 
not  essential,  is  always  acceptable  to  swine.  When  about 
to  finish  them  off",  many  feed  for  a  few  weeks  on  hard  corn. 
This  is  proper  when  slops  or  indifferent  food  has  been 
given,  and  meal  cannot  be  conveniently  procured;  but  when 
fattened  on  sound  roots  and  meal,  it  is  a  wasteful  practice,  as 
the  animal  thus  falls  behind  his  accustomed  growth.  It  is 
better  to  give  him  an  occasional  feed  of  the  raw  grain,  for  a 
change,  and  to  sharpen  his  appetite. 

The  products  furnished  by  the  carcass  of  swine  are  numer- 
ous. Every  part  of  the  animal  is  used  for  food,  and  it  admits 
of  a  far  greater  variety  of  preparation  for  the  table,  than  any 
other  flesh.  From  the  remotest  antiquity  to  the  present 
time,  and  in  every  grade  of  barbarous  and  civilized  life,  it 
has  been  esteemed  as  one  of  the  choicest  delicacies  of  the 
epicure.  Lard  oil  has  within  a  few  years,  given  to  pork  a 
new  and  profitable  use,  by  which  the  value  of  the  carcass  is 
greatly  increased.  At  some  of  the  large  i)ork-packing 
depots  of  the  west,  one-third  of  the  whole  quantity  has  been 
thus  disposed  of.  This  has  withdrawn  a  large  amount  of 
pork  from  the  market,  and  prevented  the  depression  which 
must  otherwise  have  occurred.  Where  the  oil  is  required, 
the  whole  carcass,  after  taking  out  the  hams  and  shoulders, 
is  placed  in  a  tub  having  two  bottoms,  the  upper  one  perfo- 
rated with  holes,  on  which  the  pork  is  laid,  and  then  tightly 
covered.  Steam  at  a  high  temj)erature  is  then  admitted  into 
the  tub,  and  in  a  short  time,  all  the  fat  is  extracted  and  falls 
upon  the  lower  bottom.  The  remaining  mass,  is  bones  and 
scraps.  The  last  is  fed  to  pigs,  poultry  or  dogs,  or  aflibrds 
the  best  kind  of  manure.  The  bones  are  either  used  for 
manure,  or  are  converted  into  animal  charcoal,  worth  about 
three  cents  per  lb.,  which  is  valuable  for  various  purposes  in 
the  arts.  When  the  object  is  to  obtain  lard  of  a  fine  qua- 
lity, the  animal  is  first  skinned,  and  the  adhering  fat  care- 
fully scraped  oflT.  The  oily,  viscid  matter  of  the  skin  is  thus 
avoided.  When  tanned,  the  skin  makes  a  valuable  leather. 
R* 


418  AMERinAN    AGRICtTLTrRF. 

An  aggregate  weight  of  1790  lbs.  from  four  well-fattened 
animals,  after  taking  out  the  hams  and  shoulders,  say  about 
400  lbs.,  gave  within  a  fraction  of  1*200  lbs.  of  the  best  lard. 

Stearine  and  Oleine. — Lard  and  all  fatty  matters  consist  of 
three  principles,  of  which  stcarine  contains  the  stearic  and 
margaric  acids,  Ijoth  of  which  when  separated,  are  solid  and 
used  as  inferior  substitutes  for  wax  or  spermaceti  candles. 
The  other,  oleine,  is  fluid  at  a  low  temperature,  and  in  Ameri- 
can commerce,  is  known  as  lard  oil.  It  is  very  pure  and 
extensively  used  for  machinery,  lamps  and  most  of  the  pur- 
poses for  which  olive  or  spermaceti  oils  are  used. 

Curing  hams  andiwrh. — After  dressing,  the  carcass  should 
be  allowed  to  hang  till  perfectly  drained  and  cool,  when  it  may 
be  cut  up  and  salted.  The  usual  way  is  to  pack  the  pork  in  clean 
salt,  adding  brine  to  the  barrel  when  filled.  But  it  may  be 
dry  salted,  by  rubbing  it  in  thoroughly  on  every  side  of  each 
piece,  with  a  strong  leather  rubber,  firmly  secured  to  the 
palm  of  the  right  hand.  The  pieces  are  then  thrown  into 
heaps  and  sprinkled  with  salt,  and  occasionally  turned  till 
cured  ;  or  it  may  at  once  be  packed  in  dry  casks,  which  are 
occasionally  rolled  to  bring  the  salt  into  contact  with  every 
part.  Hams  and  sJioidders  may  be  cured  in  the  same  man- 
ner,  either  dry  or  in  pickle,  but  with  differently  arranged 
materials.  The  following  is  a  good  pickle  for  200  lbs.  Take 
14  lbs.  of  Turk  Island  salt ;  h  lb.  of  salt  petre ;  2  qts.  of 
molasses,  or  4  lbs.  of  brown  sugar,  w4th  water  enough  to  dis- 
solve them.  Bring  the  liquor  to  the  scalding  point,  and  skim 
off  all  the  impurities  wdiich  rise  to  the  top.  When  cold, 
pom*  it  upon  the  ham,  which  should  be  perfectly  cool  but  not 
frozen,  and  closely  packed  ;  and  if  not  sufficient  to  cover  it, 
add  enough  pure  water  for  this  purpose.  Some  extensive 
packers  in  Cincinnati  and  elsewhere,  who  send  choice  hams 
to  market,  add  pepper,  allspice,  cinnamon,  nutmegs  or  mace 
and  cloves.  The  hams  may  remain  six  to  eight  weeks  in 
this  pickle,  then  hungup  in  the  smoke-house,  with  the  small 
end  down,  and  smoked  from  10  to  20  days,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  smoke.  The  fire  should  not  be  near  enough  to 
heat  the  hams.  In  Holland  and  Westphalia,  the  fire  is  made 
in  the  cellar,  and  the  smoke  carred  by  a  flue  into  a  cool  dry 
chamber.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  best  method  of  smoking.{|. 
The  hams  should  at  all  times  be  dry  and  cool,  or  their  flavor 
will  suffer.  Green  sugar-maple  chips,  are  best  for  smoke  ; 
next  to  them  are  hickory,  sweet  birch,  corn  col  is,  white  ash,  ^ 
or  beech.     The  smoke  house  is  the  best  place  to  keep  hams 


SWINB.  419 

till  wanted.  If  removed,  they  should  be  kept  cool,  dry  and 
free  from  lli(;s,  A  eimvass  cover  for  each,  saturated  with 
lime,  which  may  be  put  on  with  a  white-wash  bru^h,  is  a  per- 
fect protection  against  tlies.  When  not  to  be  kept  long,  they 
may  be  packed  in  dry  salt,  or  even  in  sweet  brine  without 
injury.  A  common  method  is  to  pack  in  dry  oats,  baked 
saw-dust,  ^c. 

DISEASES    OF   SWINE. 

Mortifying  as  the  fact  may  be  to  human  pride,  it  is  never- 
theless certain,  that  the  internal  arragements,  the  viscera, 
digestive  organs,  omniverous  propensities,  and  the  general 
physiological  structure  of  the  hog  and  the  bear,  more  nearly 
resemble  man,  than  any  other  animal.  Many  of  their  dis- 
eases may  therefore  be  expected  to  be  a  modification  of  those 
of  the  human  species,  and  require  a  similar  treatment. 
Swine  are  parculiarly  liable  to  colds,  coughs  and  pulmonary 
atTections;  to  cutaneous  disorders,  and  that  other  frequently 
fatal  human  disease,  the  measles.  Like  most  other  evils, 
prevention  of  disease  in  swine,  is  more  easy  and  economical 
than  cure.  A  dr}'  warm  bed,  free  from  winds  or  storms,  and 
suitable  food,  will  most  etiectually  prevent  any  injuries,  or 
ftital  attacks.  The  hog  has  little  external  covering  to  protect 
him  against  cold.  Nature  has  provided  this  immediately 
within  the  skin,  in  the  deep  layer  of  fat,  which  surrounds  the 
full,  plump  hog.  Fat  is  one  of  the  best  non-conductois  of  heat, 
and  the  pig  which  is  well  fed,  bids  defiance  to  the  intense  cold, 
which  w^ould  produce  great  suffering  and  consequent  disease, 
in  the  ill  conditioned  animal.  By  the  observance  of  a  proper 
medium  between  too  much  fat  or  lean,  for  the  store  or  breed- 
ing swine,  and  providing  them  with  comfortable  beds  and  pro- 
per feed,  almost  all  diseases  will  be  avoided. 

For  coughs  and  inflamation  or  the  lungs,  bleeding 
should  immediately  be  resorted  to,  after  which  give  gentle 
pmges  of  castor  oil,  or  Epsom  salts  ;  and  this  should  be 
followed  with  a  dose  of  antimonial  powders  ;  2  grains,  mixed 
with  half  a  dracham  of  nitre. 

For  costiveness  or  loss  of  appetite,  sulpher  is  an  excellent 
remedy,  given  in  a  light  mess. 

Itch  may  be  cured  by  anointing  with  equal  parts  of  lard 
and  brimstone.  Rubbing  posts,  and  a  running  stream  to 
wallow  in  are  preventives. 

The  kidney  worm  is  frequently  fatal,  and  always  pro- 
duces weakness  of  the  loins   and  hind  legs,  and  generally, 


420  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

entire  prostration.  A  pig  thus  far  gone,  is  hardly  worth  the 
trouble  of  recovering,  even  where  practicable.  Preventives 
are  general  thrifl,  a  range,  in  a  good  pasture,  and  a  dose  ol* 
half  a  pint  of  wood  ashes  every  week  or  fortnight  in  their 
food.  A  small  quantity  of  salt  petre,  spirits  of  turpentine,  or 
tar  will  aflect  the  same  object.  When  attacked,  apply  spirits 
of  turpentine  to  the  loins,  and  administer  calomel  carefully  ; 
or  give  half  a  table  spoonful  of  copperas  daily  for  one  or  two 
Aveeks. 

Blind  Staggers,  generally  confined  to  pigs,  manifests 
itself  in  foaming  at  the  mouth,  rearing  on  their  hind  legs, 
champing  and  grinding  their  teeth  and  apparent  blindness. 
The  proper  remedies  are  bleeding  and  purging  freely,  and 
these  frequently  fail.  Many  nostrums  have  been  suggested, 
but  few  are  of  any  utility.  It  is  important  to  keep  the  issues 
on  the  inside  of  the  fore  legs,  just  below  the  knee,  thoroughly 
cleansed.  The  most  convenient  mode  of  bleeding,  is  from  an 
artery  just  above  the  knee,  on  the  inside  of  the  fore-arm. 
It  may  be  drawn  more  copiously  from  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The  flow  of  blood  may  usually  be  stopped,  by  applying  a  sponge 
or  cloth  with  cold  water. 

The  diseases  of  swine,  though  not  numerous,  are  formida- 
ble, and  many  of  them  soon  become  fatal.  They  have  not 
been  the  subject  of  particlar  scientific  study,  and  most  of  the 
remedies  applied,  are  rather  the  result  of  casual  or  hap-hazard 
suggestion,  than  of  well-digested  inference,  from  long  contin- 
ued and  accurate  observation. 


POUTRY.  421 


CHAPTER    XXT. 


POULTRY. 


Choice  varieties  of  fowls,  add  a  pleasant  feature  to  tlie 
farm  premises.  They  engage  the  attention  and  sympathy  of 
the  juvenile  farmers,  and  the  time  bestowed  in  the  poultry 
yard,  keeps  them  from  mischief,  is  an  agreeable  and  salutary 
relief  for  toil  and  study,  and  elicits  the  taste,  the  judgment, 
and  the  kindlier  feelings  of  humanity,  which  are  to  be  ma- 
tured in  the  future  accomplished  breeder.  When  properly 
managed,  poultry  are  a  source  of  considerable  prorit,  yielding 
more  forthe  food  they  consume,  than  any  other  stock,  although 
their  value  is  not  often  considered.  The  agricultural  statis- 
tics of  the  United  States,  for  1839,  give  us  over  $12,000,000 
in  poultry,  and  it  probably  exceeds  $15,000,000  at  the  present 
time.  It  is  estimated  by  McQueen,  that  the  poultry  of  En- 
gland exceeds  $40,000,000,  and  yet  McCulloch  says,  she 
imports  60,000,000  eggs  annually  from  France, —  McQueen 
states  it  at  near  70,000,000 ;  and  from  other  parts  of  the 
continent,  25,000,000;  besides  80,000,000  imported  from 
Ireland.  Poultry  then  ceases  to  be  an  unimportant  object  of 
agricultural  attention,  and  assumes  its  appropriate  place 
among  the  other  staples  of  the  farmer. 

HENS 
Are  the  most  numerous  and  profitable,  and  the  most  gen- 
erally useful  of  the  feathered  tribe.  The  hen  is  peculiarly 
an  egg.producing  bird.  She  has  the  same  predisposition  for 
laying,  that  the  cow  has  for  secreting  milk.  Some  breeds 
are  better  adapted  for  this  object  than  others  ;  but  in  all  that 
have  ever  come  within  our  notice,  the  proper  food  and  cir- 
cumstances are  alone  wanting,  to  produce  a  reasonable  quan- 
tity of  eggs.  The  egg  consists  of  three  distinct  parts  ;  the 
shell,  the  white,  and  the  yolk.  A  good-sized  egg  will  weigh 
1,000  grains,  of  which  about  107  are  shell,  604  are  white, 


422  AMERICAN     AGRTCrLTUHE. 

and  289  are  yolk.  Of  the  shell,  97  per  cent,  is  carbonate 
of  lime,  1  per  cent,  phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  2 
per  cent,  albumen.  The  white  consists  of  12  per  cent,  of 
albumen,  2.7  of  mucus,  0.3  of  salts,  and  85  of  water.  The 
yolk  has  about  17-4  per  cent,  of  albumen,  28.6  of  yellow 
oil,  54  of  water,  with  a  trace  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 
The  above  are  tlie  constituents  of  eggs,  which  have  been 
formed  when  the  bird  has  free  access  to  the  various  articles, 
which  constitute  her  natural  food.  But  they  vary  with  cir- 
cumstances. When  full  fed  and  denied  all  access  to  lime, 
she  will  form  an  egg  without  the  shell,  and  deliver  it  enclosed 
in  the  membrane  or  sack  which  always  surrounds  the  white, 
when  covered  by  the  shell.  When  scantily  fed,  they  will 
frequently  lay ;  but  from  a  deficiency  of  nutriment,  the  egg 
will  be  meagre  and  watery,  and  possess  but  a  small  portion 
of  the  nutritious  qualities  peculiar  to  them.  To  produce  the 
largest  number  of  good  eggs,  several  conditions  are  impor- 
tant ;  and  they  must  especially  have  an  abundance  of  the 
right  kind  of  food.  This  is  the  most  readily  obtained  in  part 
from  animal  food.  In  warm  weather,  when  they  have  a  free 
range,  they  can  generally  supply  their  wants  in  the  abun- 
dance of  insects,  earth  worms,  and  other  animal  matters 
within  their  reach.  The  laige  proportion  of  albumen  con- 
tained in  their  eggs,  requires  that  much  of  their  food  should 
be  highly  nitrogenized,  and  when  they  cannot  procure  this 
in  animal  matter,  it  must  be  given  in  grains  containing  it. 

If  to  the  usual  qualities  of  hens,  a  breed  of  peculiar  ele- 
gance, of  graceful  forms,  and  beautiful  })lumage,  be  added, 
together  with  entire  adaptation  to  the  economical  purposes 
required,  good  layers,  and  good  carcass,  we  have  a  combina- 
tion of  utility,  luxury,  and  taste  in  this  bird,  which  slmidd 
commend  them  as  general  Hivorites.  They  can  every  where 
be  kept  with  advantage,  except  in  dense  cities.  A  hen  that 
costs  a  shilling  or  two,  if  provided  with  a  suitable  range,  will 
cortsume  30  or  40  cents  worth  of  food,  and  produce  from  80 
to  150  eggs  per  annum,  worth  two  or  three  times  the  cost  of 
feed  and  attention. 

The  food  of  hens  may  consist  of  different  kinds  of  grain, 
either  broken,  ground,  or  cooked  ;  roots,  and  especially  boiled 
potatoes,  are  nutritious  and  economical;  green  herbage,  as 
clover  and  many  of  the  grains,  chickweed,  lettuce,  cabbage, 
&c.,  will  suj)ply  them  willi  much  of  their  food,  if  fresh  and 
tender.  Though  not  absolutely  essential  to  them,  yet  nothing 
contributes  so  mucli  to  their  laving,  as  unsalted,  animal  food. 


HENS.  423 

This  is  a  natural  aliment,  as  is  shown  by  the  avidity  with 
which  they  pounce  on  every  fly,  insect,  or  earth-worm  which 
conies  within  their  reach.  It  would  not  of  course  pay  to 
supply  them  with  valual)lc  meat,  but  the  blood  and  oflal  of  the 
slaughter  houses,  refuse  meal  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  the 
scraps  or  cracklings  to  be  had  at  the  melters'  shops,  after 
soaking  for  a  few  hours  in  warm  water,  is  one  of  the  best  and 
most  economical  kinds  of  food.  Such  with  boiled  meal  is  a 
very  fattening  food.  Grain  is  at  all  times  best  for  them 
when  cooked,  as  they  will  lay  more,  (at  quicker,  and  eat 
much  less  when  it  is  fed  to  them  in  this  state  ;  and  it  may  be 
thus  used  unground,  with  the  same  advantage  to  the  fowls,  as 
if  first  crushed,  as  their  digestive  organs  are  certain  to  extract 
the  whole  nutriment.  All  grain  is  food  for  them,  including 
millet,  rice,  the  oleaginous  seeds,  as  the  sun-flower,  flax, 
hemp,  dsc.  It  is  always  better  to  aflbrd  them  a  variety  of 
grain,  where  they  can  procure  them  at  their  option,  and  select 
as  their  appetite  craves. 

They  are  also  fond  of  milk,  and  indeed  scarcely  any  edible 
escapes  their  notice.  They  carefully  pick  up  most  of  the 
waste  garbage  around  the  premises,  and  glean  much  of  their 
subsistence  from  what  would  otherwise  become  offensive, 
and  by  their  destruction  of  innumerable  insects  and  worms, 
they  render  great  assistance  to  the  gardener.  Of  course 
their  ever-busy  propensity  for  scratching,  is  indiscrimi- 
nately indulged  just  after  the  seeds  have  been  planted  and 
while  the  plants  are  young,  which  renders  it  necessary  that 
they  be  confined  in  some  close  yard  for  a  time  ;  yet  this 
should  be  as  capacious  as  possible.  Their  food  is  better 
when  given  to  them  warm,  not  hot ;  and  there  should  always 
be  a  supply  before  them  to  prevent  gorging,  which  is  better 
to  be  placed  on  shelves  or  suspended  boxes  or  hoppers,  which 
are  variously  and  cheaply  constructed,  to  keep  it  clean  and 
out  of  the  reach  of  rats.  Besides  their  food,  hens  ought  to 
be  at  all  times  abundantly  supplied  with  clean  water,  egg  or 
pounded  oyster  shells,  old  mortar  or  slaked  lime.  If  not 
allowed  to  run  at  large,  where  they  can  help  themselves, 
they  must  also  be  furnished  with  gravel  to  assist  their  diges- 
tion ;  and  a  box  or  bed  of  ashes,  sand  and  dust,  is  equally 
essential  to  roll  in  for  the  purpose  of  ridding  themselves 
of  vermin. 

The  hen-house  may  be  constructed  in  various  ways  to 
suit  tho  wishes  of  the  owner,  and  when  tastefully  built,  it  is 
an  ornament  to  the  premises.     It  should  be  perfectly  dry 


424  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUKE. 

throughout,  properly  lighted,  and  capable  of  being  made 
tight  and  warm  in  winter,  yet  afford  all  the  ventilation  desi- 
rable at  any  season.  In  this,  arrange  the  nests  in  boxes  on 
the  sides,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  humor  the  instinct  of  the 
hen  for  concealment  when  she  resorts  to  them.  When  desi- 
rable to  set  the  hen,  these  nests  may  be  so  placed  as  to  shut 
out  the  others,  yet  open  into  another  yard  or  beyond  the 
enclosure,  so  that  they  can  take  an  occasional  stroll  and 
help  themselves  to  food,  &;c.  This  prevents  other  hens  lay- 
ing in  their  nests,  while  setting,  and  may  be  easily  managed, 
by  having  their  boxes  placed  on  the  wall  of  the  building, 
with  a  movable  door  made  to  open  on  either  side  at  pleasure. 
Hens  will  lay  equally  well  without  a  nest-egg,  but  when  bro- 
ken up,  they  ramble  off  and  form  new  nests,  if  they  are  not 
confined.  They  will  lay  if  kept  from  the  cock,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  they  will  thus  yield  as  many  eggs.  Hens  dis- 
posed to  set  at  improper  times,  should  be  dismissed  from  the 
common  yard,  so  as  to  be  out  of  reach  of  the  nests,  and  plen- 
tifully fed  till  weaned  from  this  inclination. 

Tlie  chickens  require  to  be  kept  warm  and  dry,  for  the  first 
few  days  after  hatching,  and  they  may  be  fed  with  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  crumbs  of  bread  or  pudding,  and  milk  or  water, 
and  allowed  to  scratch  in  the  gravel  in  front  of  the  hen, 
which  should  be  confined  in  a  coop  for  the  first  three  or  four 
weeks,  after  which,  they  may  be  turned  loose,  when  they 
will  thrive  on  any  thing  the  older  ones  eat.  Many  use 
them  for  the  table  when  they  are  but  a  few  weeks  old  ;  but 
they  are  unfit  for  this  purpose,  till  they  have  attained  full 
maturity.  The  white-legs  are  preferred  by  some,  from  the 
whiteness  and  apparent  delicacy  of  the  meat ;  but  the  yellow- 
legged  are  the  richest  and  most  highly-flavored.  The  color 
of  the  feathers,  does  not  seem  to  affect  the  quality  of  the 
flesh  or  their  character  for  laying.  If  we  consider  the  prin- 
ciple of  tlie  absorption  and  retention  of  heat,  we  siiould 
assume  the  white  coat  to  be  best,  as  it  is  coolest  in  summer 
when  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  warmest  in  winter.  Yet  some 
of  the  white  breeds  are  delicate  and  do  not  bear  rough  usage 
or  exposure. 

Varieties. — These  differ  materially  in  their  sizes,  shapes 
and  colors.  The  Dorking  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best,  being 
large,  well  formed  and  hardy,  good  layers  and  nurses,  and 
yielding  an  excellent  carcass.  They  are  both  white  and 
speckled,  and  generally  have  five  toes.  The  Poland  is  both 
white  and  black,  with  a  large  tuft,  generally  of  white   fea- 


HBNS.  At6 

thers  on  the  head.  They  are  of  good  size,  and  excellent 
layers,  but  are  seldom  inclined  to  set,  which  makes  them 
peculiarly  desirable  for  such  as  wish  eggs  only.  The 
Dominique  is  a  speckled  fowl,  of  barely  medium  size,  com- 
pact, hardy,  good  layers,  and  valuable  for  the  table.  The 
BucW  county  fowl,  heretofore  principally  reared  near  Phila- 
delphia, possess  but  moderate  pretensions  to  notice,  except  in 
their  immense  size,  a  brace  of  them  having  been  fattened  to 
19^  lbs.  when  dressed.  The  Bantam  is  but  little  larger  than 
a  pigeon,  and  is  usually  of  a  pure  white,  but  is  sometimes 
speckled.  It  is  generally  feathered  to  the  toes,  but  may  be 
bred  with  clean  legs.  It  is  very  domestic,  and  a  pleasant 
lillle  bird  around  the  premises,  and  is  not  unprofitable.  The 
Game  cock  is  of  medium  weight,  and  yields  good  flesh,  but  is 
a  poor  layer,  and  an  undesirable  tenant  for  the  farm  yard. 
Besides  these,  there  are  many  fanciful  varieties,  as  the 
Creeper,  with  excessively  short  legs  ;  the  Rumpless,  without 
a  tail ;  the  Frizzled,  with  irregular  feathers  turned  towards 
the  head  ;  the  Silky  or  Merino  fowl,  with  brown  or  buff 
down,  instead  of  feathers;  the  Negro,  with  its  black  crest, 
wattles,  skin,  legs  and  feathers  ;  the  Java  and  Cochin  China, 
of  great  size  ;  several  varieties  of  the  Tap-knot,  and  others. 

The  diseases  of  hens  are  not  numerous  or  complicated, 
and  may  be  mostly  avoided  by  proper  treatment  and  food, 
which  are  indicated  with  sufficient  minuteness  in  the  forego- 
ing observations. 

Gapes  or  pip  is  generally  owing  to  drinking  unwholesome 
or  diriy  water.  Remove  the  white  blister  on  the  tip  of  the 
tongue,  and  wash  with  sharp  vinegar,  diluted  with  warm 
water  ;  or  compel  the  bird  to  swallow  a  large  lump  of  fresh 
butter,  mixed  with  Scotch  snuff.  It  has  been  removed  by 
opening  the  mouth  and  forcing  a  pigeon  feather,  with  a 
tuft  of  the  feathers  left  on  the  end,  the  others  being  stripped 
off,  down  the  wind-pipe,  and  gently  turning  it  as  withdrawn, 
to  be  repeated  the  following  day  if  necessary.  This  detaches 
large  numbers  of  a  slender  red  worm,  collected  in  the  larynx 
of  the  throat,  which  impedes  respiration  and  swallowing. 
A  little  spirits  of  turpentine  mixed  with  the  food  is  a  preven- 
tive; as  are  also  clean,  white-washed  premises,  and  good  food. 
Feed  for  a  few  days  with  light  food,  soaked  bran  and  cab- 
bage or  lettuce  chopped  fine.  Roup,  Catarrh  or  stpelled  head, 
is  shown  by  feverish  symptoms,  swollen  eye-lids,  frequently 
terminating  in  blindness,  rattling  in  the  throat  and  tempo- 
rary strangulation.     These  are  accompanied  by  a  highly 


4i86  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

offensive  watery  discharge,  from  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  loss 
of  appetite,  and  much  thirst.  They  should  be  placed  near 
the  lire  ;  their  head  bathed  in  warm  Castile  soap-suds,  or 
milk  and  water.  Stimulating  food,  as  flour  or  barley.meal, 
mustard  and  grated  ginger,  mixed  and  forced  down  the  throat, 
Bos  well  says,  has  been  effectual  in  their  speedy  restoration. 
This,  like  many  other  diseases,  is  contagious,  and  when  it 
appears,  the  bird  should  be  at  once  separated  from  the  flock. 
Flvx  is  cured  by  the  yolk  of  an  egg  boiled  hard  ;  and  boiled 
barley  soaked  in  wine.  Costiveness  is  removed  by  giving 
bran  and  water  with  a  little  honey ;  or  give  a  small  dose 
of  castor  oil.  Vermin  are  destroyed  by  giving  them  clean 
sand  and  ashes  to  roll  in,  adding  a  little  quick  lime  if 
necessary.  Entire  cleanliness  is  necessary  for  the  avoidance 
of  this  and  other  diseases.  A  perfectly  dry  range  is  also 
essential,  nor  should  there  be  too  many  together,  as  this  is  a 
fruitful  source  of  disease. 

THE   TURKEY 

Was  unknown  to  the  civilized  world  till  the  discovery  of  this 
Continent.  It  was  ibund  here  both  in  its  wild  and  do- 
mesticated state  ;  and  still  occupies  the  whole  range  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  though  the  wild  turkey  disappears  as 
the  country  becomes  settled.  The  wild  is  larger  than  the 
domesticated  bird,  sometimes  weighinj^f  over  .30  lbs.  dressed. 
The  color  of  the  male  is  generally  a  greenish  brown,  ap- 
proaching to  black,  and  of  a  rich,  changeable,  metallic  lustre. 
The  hen  is  marked  somewhat  like  the  cock,  but  with  duller 
hues.  Domestication  through  successive  ^generations,  dims 
the  brilliancy  of  their  plumage,  and  lessens  their  size  and  bar- 
diness.  It  also  produces  a  variety  of  colors,  though  they  are 
mostly  of  a  black,  bufl",  pure  white,  or  speckled.  They  give 
evidence  of  the  comparative  recency  of  their  domestication,  in 
the  instinct  which  frequently  impels  the  cock  to  brood  and 
take  care  of  the  young.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  for 
the  male  bird  to  supply  the  place  of  the  hen,  when  any  acci- 
dent befals  her,  and  bring  up  a  family  of  young  chicks  with 
an  equally  instinctive  regard  tor  their  lielplessness  and  safety. 
The  flesh  of  this  bird,  both  wild  and  lame,  is  exceedingly  deli, 
cate  and  palatable;  and  though  not  possessing  the  high  game 
flavor  of  some  of  the  smaller  wild  fowl,  and  especially  of  the 
aquatic,  as  the  canvass-back  duck,  &;c.,  it  exceeds  them  in  its 
digestibility  and  healthfulness.  The  turkey  is  useful  princi- 
pally for  its  flesh,  as  it  seldom  lays  over  a  nest-full  of  eggs  in 


PEACOCK    AND  GUINEA  HEN.  427 

one  season,  when  they  brood  on  these  and  bring  up  tlieir 
young.  It*  full-fed,  and  their  Hrst  eggs  are  withdrawn  from 
them,  they  frequently  lay  a  second  time. 

Brkedinc. — Those  intended  for  breeders  should  V)e  com- 
pact, vigorous  and  large,  without  being  long-legged.  They 
should  be  daily,  yet  lightly  fed  through  the  winter,  on  grain 
and  roots,  and  some  animal  food  is  always  acceptable  and 
beneficial  to  them.  They  are  small  eaters,  and  without  cau- 
tion will  soon  get  too  fat.  One  vigorous  male  will  suffice  for 
a  flock  of  10  or  12  hens,  and  a  single  connexion  is  sufficient 
for  each.  They  begin  to  lay  on  the  approach  of  warm  wea- 
ther, laying  once  a  day,  or  every  other  day,  till  they  have  com- 
pleted their  litter ;  which  in  the  young  or  indifferently  fed,  may 
be  10  or  12,  and  in  the  older  ones,  sometimes  reaches  20. 
The  hen  is  sly  in  secreting  her  nest,  but  usually  selects  a  dry, 
well-protected  place.  She  is  an  inveterate  sitter,  and  care- 
fully hatches  most  of  her  eggs.  The  young  may  be  allowed 
to  remain  for  24  hours  without  eating,  then  fed  with  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  made  fine,  or  crumbs  of  wheat  bread.  Boiled 
milk,  curds,  butter-milk,  &c.  are  food  for  them.  As  they  get 
older,  oat  or  barley-meal  is  suitable,  but  Indian-meal  uncooked, 
is  hurtful  to  them  when  quite  young.  They  are  very  tender, 
and  will  bear  neither  cold  or  wet,  and  it  is  of  course  necessary 
to  confine  the  old  one  for  the  first  few  weeks.  When  able  to 
shift  for  themselves,  they  may  wander  over  the  fields  at  plea- 
sure ;  and  from  their  great  fondness  for  insects,  they  will  rid 
the  meadows  of  innumerable  grasshoppers,  &c.,  which  often 
do  incalculable  damage  to  the  farmer.  Early  chickens  are 
sufficiently  grown  to  fatten  the  latter  part  of  autumn  or  the 
beginning  of  winter,  which  is  easily  done  on  any  of  the  grains 
or  boiled  roots.  The  grain  is  better  for  cooking.  They  re- 
quire a  higher  roosting  place  than  hens,  and  are  impatient  of 
too  close  confinement,  preferring  the  ridge  of  a  barn,  or  a  lofty 
tree  to  the  circumscribed  limits  of  the  ordinary  poultry-house. 
When  rightly  managed  and  fed,  turkies  are  subject  to  few 
maladies,  and  even  these,  careful  attention  will  soon  remove, 

THE   PEACOCK  AND   GUINEA  HEN. 

The  peacock  is  undoubtedly  the  most  showy  of  the  feathered 
race.  It  is  a  native  of  the  southern  part  of  Asia,  and  is  still 
found  wild  in  the  islands  of  Java  and  Ceylon,  and  some  parts 
of  the  interior  of  Africa.  They  are  an  ornament  to  the  farm 
premises,  and  are  useful  in  destroying  reptiles,  insects  and 
garbage  ;  but  they  are  quarrelsome  in  the  poultry  yard,  and 


428  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

destructive  in  the  garden.  Their  flesh  is  coarse  and  dark, 
and  they  are  worthless  as  layers.  The  brilliant  silvery  green 
and  their  ever-varying  colors,  gives  place  to  an  entire  white, 
in  one  of  the  varieties. 

The  Guinea  hen  is  a  native  of  Africa  and  the  southern  part 
of  Asia  where  it  abounds  in  its  wild  state.  Most  of  them  are 
beautifully  and  uniformly  speckled;  but  occasionally,  they  are 
white  on  the  breast,  like  the  Pintados  of  the  W.  I.  Islands, 
and  some  are  entirely  white.  They  are  unceasingly  garrulous, 
and  their  excessively  pugnacious  character,  renders  them  un- 
comfortable inmates  with  the  other  poultry.  Their  flesh, 
though  high  colored,  is  delicate  and  palatable,  but  like  the  pea- 
cock, they  are  indifferent  layers.  Both  are  natives  of  a  warm 
climate,  and  the  young  are  tender  and  rather  difficult  to  rear. 
Neither  of  these  birds  are  general  favorites,  and  we  omit  fur- 
ther notice  of  them. 

THE    GOOSE. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  goose.  Main  enumerates 
twenty-two,  most  of  which  are  wild  ;  and  the  tame  are  again 
variously  sub-divided.  The  common  white  and  grey  are  the 
most  numerous  and  profitable.  The  white  Bremen  is  much 
larger,  often  weighing  over  20  lbs.  nett.  It  is  of  a  beautiful 
snowy  plumage,  is  domestic  and  reared  without  difficulty, 
though  not  as  prolific  and  hardy  as  the  former.  The  China 
goose  is  smaller  than  the  grey,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  family,  possessing  much  of  the  gracefulness  and  gene-  - 
ral  appearance  of  the  swan.  It  is  prolific  and  tolerably  hardy, 
but  has  not  thus  far,  been  a  successful  rival  with  the  first. 
The  Guinea  or  African  goose  is  the  largest  of  the  species, 
and  equals  the  size  of  the  swan,  often  dressing  over  25  lbs. 
It  is  a  majestic  and  graceful  bird,  and  very  ornamental  to 
water  scenery.  Several  other  varieties  are  domesticated  in 
the  United  States. 

Breeding. — Geese  pair  fi^quently  at  one  year  old,  and 
rear  their  young ;  but  with  some  kinds,  os|>ecially  of  the  wild, 
this  is  deferred  till  two  und  sometimes  three.  They  require 
a  warm,  dry  place  for  their  nests,  and  when  undisturbed,  they 
will  sit  steadily ;  and  if  the  eggs  liavc  not  been  previously 
chilled  or  addled,  they  will  generally  hatch  them  all,  if  kept  . 
on  the  nest.  To  insure  this,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  ^ 
withdraw  the  first  hatched,  to  prt^vent  the  old  ones  wander- 
ing before  all  are  out.  They  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  shel- 
tered place  till  two  or  three  weeks  old  if  the  weather  be  cold 


DUCKS.  4*29 

or  unsettled.  The  best  food  for  the  goslings,  is  barley  or  oat, 
or  boiled  Indian-meal  and  bread.  Milk  is  also  good  for 
them.  They  require  green  food,  and  are  fond  of  lettuce, 
young  clover,  and  fresh  tender  grass,  and  after  a  few  weeks, 
if  they  have  a  free  range  on  this,  they  will  forage  for  them- 
selves.  Geese  are  not  a  profitable  bird  to  raise,  unless  in 
places  where  they  can  procure  their  own  subsistence,  or  at 
least  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  This  they  are  ena- 
bled to  do,  whenever  there  are  extensive  commons  of  unpas- 
tured  lands,  or  when  there  are  streams  or  ponds,  lakes  or 
inarshes  with  shoal  sedgy  banks.  In  these,  they  will  live 
and  fatten  throughout  the  year,  if  unobstructed  by  ice. 

They  may  be  fattened  on  all  kinds  of  grain  and  edible 
roots,  but  it  is  more  economical  to  give  them  their  food 
cooked.  The  well-fattened  gosling  affords  one  of  the  most 
savory  dishes  for  tlie  table.  Geese  live  to  a  great  age. 
They  have  been  known  to  exceed  100  years.  When  allowed 
a  free  range  on  good  food  and  clean  water,  they  will  seldom 
get  diseased.  When  well  fed,  they  yield  nearly  a  pound  of 
good  feathers  in  a  season,  at  three  or  four  pluckings,  and  the 
largest  varieties  even  exceed  this. 

DUCKS 

Are  moro  hardy  and  independent  of  attention  than  the 
goose,  and  they  are  generally  the  most  profitable.  They  are 
omnivorous,  and  greedily  devour  every  thing  which  will 
allbrd  them  nourishment,  though  they  seldom  forage  on  the 
grasses  like  the  goose,  when  they  can  procure  other  food. 
They  are  peculiarly  carnivorous,  and  devour  all  kinds  of  meat, 
putrid  or  fresh ;  and  are  especially  fond  of  fish,  and  such 
insects,  worms,  &;c.,  as  they  can  find  imbedded  in  the  mud 
or  elsewhere.  They  will  often  distend  their  crop  with  young 
frogs,  almost  to  the  ordinary  size  of  their  bodies.  Their 
indiscriminate  appetites  often  render  them  unfit  for  the  table, 
unless  fattened  out  of  the  reach  of  garbage  and  offensive 
matters.  An  English  admiral  used  to  resort  to  well-fattened 
rats  for  his  fresh  meat,  when  at  sea,  and  justified  his  taste  by 
saying,  they  were  more  cleanly  feeders  than  ducks,  which  were 
general  favorites. 

The  varieties  of  ducks  are  almost  innumerable.  Main 
describes  31,  and  some  naturalists  number  over  100.  The 
most  profitable  for  domestic  use,  is  undoubtedly  the  common 
black  duck.  They  lay  profusely  in  the  spring,  when  well 
fed,  often  producing  40  or  50  eggs,  and  sometimes  a  greater 


4^  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

number,  if  kept  from  sitting.  They  are  much  larger  than 
those  of  the  hen,  and  equally  rich  and  nourishing,  but  far  less 
delicate.  They  are  careless  in  their  habits,  and  generally  drop 
their  eggs  wherever  they  happen  to  be  through  the  night, 
whether  in  the  water,  the  road  or  farm-yard  ;  and  as  might 
be  expected  from  such  prodigality  of  character,  they  are  indif- 
ferent sitters  and  nurses.  The  ducklings  arc  better  reared, 
by  setting  the  eggs  under  a  sedate,  experienced  hen,  as  the 
longer  time  necessary  for  hatching,  requires  patience  in  the 
foster-mother  to  develop  the  young  chick.  They  should  be 
confined  for  a  few  days,  and  away  from  the  water.  At  first 
they  may  be  fed  with  bread,  or  pudding  made  from  boiled 
oat,  barley,  or  Indian-meal  ;  and  they  soon  acquire  strength, 
and  enterprise  enough  to  shift  for  themselves,  if  afterwards 
supplied  with  pond  or  river  water.  They  arc  fit  for  the  table 
when  fully  grown,  and  well  fattened  on  clean  grain.  This 
is  more  economically  accomplished  by  feeding  it  cooked. 
The  light  grey,  the  white  duck,  and  some  of  the  tufted,  are 
prolific,  hardy  and  profitable.  We  omit  further  notice  of 
other  varieties,  and  of  the  swan,  brant,  pigeons,  &c.,  as  not 
profitable  for  general  rearing,  and  only  suited  to  ornamental 
grounds. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Agricultuial  colleges  and  schools  de- 
manded     8 

what  they  should  be       .        .  9 
Agriculture,  defined  ....      5 
national  board  of,  required    .          S 
Air,  essential  to  the  roots  of  plants       75 
Alluvial  soils,  how  formed  and  treat- 
ed      19 

Ammonia,  how  formed  and  combin'd  ,1*2 
Ammoniacal  liquor,  described  .  47 
for  manure  ....  47 
Animals  domestic,  reared  in  the  U.S.  2,37 
their  number  and  value  .  .257 
their  improvement  .  .  258 
adaptation  to  various  objects  .  258 
general  form  and  characteristics  261 

the  lungs 261 

respiration      .        .        .      262—265 

effects  of 2fw 

perspiration  ....  ;i66 
food  which  supplies  waste  in  266 
circumstances    which    augment 

respiiation  .  .  .  267—269 
food  .  .  .  .  •  269 
purposes  fulfilled  by  food  .  .269 
nutritive    qualities   for    various 

animals  ....  271 
profit  of  feeding  .  .  272—274 
See  Cattle,  Sheep  &;c. 
Apatite,  is  phosphate  of  lime  .  .  42 
Apples,  situation  and  soil  for  .  160 
planting  trees  .  .  .  .161 
cultivation  of         .        .        .       Wl 

pruning 164 

grafting  and  budding      .        .        165 

selection  of  trees        .        .        .  165 

planting  the  seed    ...       165 

gathering  and  preserving   .        .  166 

for  farm  stock  and  value  of  166—167 

best  varieties  of     .        .        .       168 

Apricots,  cultivation  of    .        .        .173 

Artichoke,  the  Jerusalem      .        .       156 

its  value,  productand  cultivation  1.56 

Arundo  grass,  described  .        .    90 

Ash  tree,  the  white,  for  shade      .       240 

Ashes  as  manure  .        .        .  31 — 35 

defined 31 

from  various  vegetables  .  32 
quantity  required  per  acre  .  33 
applied  to  meadows  .  .  34 
coal,  for  manure       ...     34 


Page 
Ashes  from   sea- weeds  or  marine 

plants  ....         34 

peat,  how  used  on  soils  .  .  35 
See  Soils  and  various  crops. 

Ass,  The 398-400 

varieties  and  characteristics  399 
breeding  in  the  U.  States  .  399 
as  a  beast  of  burtlien    .        .       400 


Barley,  varieties  of  ...  120 

soil  and  cultivation        .        .       121 

harvesting  and  uses  of      .        •  122 

ashes  analyzed        ...        32 

Barns — see  Buildings. 

Beans,  nutritive  value  of     .        .       138 

soil  and  cultivation  .        .        .  138 

harvesting     ....       130 

varieties  of  the  English  field     •  139 

ash  of,  analyzed    .        .        •        32 

Beets,  varieties  of    .        .        .        .  154 

planting         ....       154 

cultivation  of    .         .         .         .155 

harvesting  and  uses       .        .       155 

analysis 156 

Birds,  utility  to  the  fanner  .        .      233 
Bermuda  grass         ....    89 
Blood,  as  manure         ...         82 
Blood,  or  thorough-bred— see  Animals. 
Blue  grass,  (erronesusly  called)    .        87 

described 88 

comparative  value  and  descrip- 
tion of 93 

Bokhara,  or  sweet-scented  clover       104 

Bones,  analyzed        i        .        .        .41 

used  as  manure      .        .        .        41 

Breeding,  defined      ....      6 

principles  of  .        .        .        .       259 

See  Cattle,  Sheep  Sec. 

Bricks,  broken,  for  manure  .        .        44 

Broom  corn,  soil  and  manure  .        .  177 

cultivation  and  harvesting     .      178 

value  and  uses    ....  178 

Buckwheat,  cultivation  and  uses       135 

Buildings  for  the  farm         .        ai7— 25« 

farm-house  ....  247 

cellar 248 

barn 249 

sheds 251 

carriage-houses,  granary,  &c.   .  252 

materials  for  buildings  .        .       254 

Button- wood  trees,  for  shade  .       .  241 


432 


INDEX. 


Calcareous  Boi!s    . 
Canada  thistle,  how  extirpated 
Cane,  sugar,  see  Sugar. 
C-arbon,  described    . 
Carbonic  acid,  uses 
Carrots,  ash  analysed 

soil  and  varieties  . 

harvesting  and  uses  . 
Castor  bean         .        .        .        , 
Charcoal,  as  manure 
Cattle,  see  Animals. 

neat  or  horned  . 

various  domestic  breeds 

native  cattle  . 

Devons      .... 

Short-horns   . 


Page 
13 


.50 
50,51 

32 
152 
153 
220 

45 


274,  316 
274 
275-277 
277,  295 
27S— 280 

Herefords 280 

Ayrshire         ....        282 

management  of  calves      .    283,285 

breeding,  see  Breeding. 

breeding  cattle       .        .        .       285 

breaking  steers  ....    286 

management  of  oxen     .        286,  288 

fattening  and  stall-feeding       .    288 
Diseases     .        .        .        .        289,  295 

hoven 289 

choking  .... 

inflammation  of  stomach 

mange  or  scab 

horn-ail     . 

jaundice 

mad-itch    . 

bloody-murrain 

hoof-ail,  loss  of  cud  . 

scours  or  diarrboe  . 

warbles  or  grubs 

wounds  .... 

puerpal  or  milk  fever 

caked  bags     . 

garget 

sore-teats       .        .        . 

warts 295 

!Sec  Dairy. 
Cows  for  dairy         ....    296 

management  of      .       ,        .       296 

milking 207 

Comparative   value  of  oxen  and 

horses 409 

spayed-heifers,    valuable   for 

work 

Churns,  see  Dairy.  1 

Chemical,  defined    .        .        .        , 
Cherries,  cultivation  and  varieties 
Chlfwine,  combined  with  soda    . 
Cider,  to  make 
Cisterns,  construction  . 
Clay,  useful  to  sandy  »oil8 
Clay-soils,  defined 

character  and  treatment 

soils,  improved  . 

products  of    . 
Clover,  red  and  white,  ashes  of, 
•inalysed 

for  green  manure 

common  red  . 

value  and  description 

cultivation 

growth  promoted   . 


15 


294 
294 
294 
294 
294 
294 
295 


409 

16 
170 
42 
117 
251 
17 
12 
17 
15 
17 


36,  65,  104 

98 

.    a3,  100 

98—99 
oo  I 


Fagt 

Clover,  time  for  cutting  and  cur- 
ing      ...        .       99—100 
management  of  fields        .        .    100 
harvesting,  the  seed     .        101—103 
southern  clover         .        .        .     102 
white  creeping  clover    .        .        102 
yellow,  hop-trefoil  or  sham- 
rock       ....    102—103 
crimson  or  scarlet         .        .        103 
Bockharra  or  sweet  scented         104 
Cock's-foot,  or  orchard  grass  .      86 

Color  of  soils        ....  24 

Cotton,  its  value  .  .  .  .189 
climate  and  soil  .  .  189,  190 
harvesting        .  .        .    191,  192 

topping  ....        192 

Sea-Island  .  .  .  192,  195 
Cotton-seed,  for  food  ...  195 
Corn,  Indian,  ....     125 

quality  raised  in  U.  S.  .        125 

varieties  of  .  .  .  126—127 
analysis  of  .  .  .  .  126 
soil  and  cultivation  .        .    Iri7 

selection  of  seed  .       .        127 

preparation  of  seed   .       .       .    128 

planting 128 

harvesting         ....    129 

for  soiling       ....        130 

uses  of  corn       .       .        .       .130 

broom,  see  Broom-corn. 

Cow-pea,  as  a  fertiliser  ...      66 

cultivation  and  value  .        .         137 

Cranberry,  soil  and  cultivation  175—178 

Cream,  see  Dairy. 

Crops,  large  only  profitable  .  .  37 
Cultivator,  how  used  ...  83 
Currants,  cultivation       .        .        .    171 

D. 

Dairy,  the 296,  316 

selection   and  management   of 

cows 296 

milking 297 

properties  of  milk     .        .        .  t»97 

variations  in          .        .        .  *-M»H 

cream,  clouted  ditto         .        .  300 
Making  butler   from  sour,  sweet 

and  clouted  cream        .        .  301 

from  the  whole  milk     .        .  302 

sourness  of  cream     .       .        .  302 

quickness  in  churning .        .  3'>3 

over  churning   ....  .'i03 

temperature  of  milk  and  cream  303 
advantages  ofchurningthe  whole  JMi3 

cleanliness  in  churning    .        .  301 

premium  butter,  how  marie  .  304 

Orange  county     do        do        .  'Ji)o 

Making  cheese.'how  aflfected  .  306 

creamed  and  uncrcamed  .        .  :>07 

butter-milk  cheese        .        .  307 

whey               do        .        .        .  ;M)8 

vegetable  substances  added   .  :W9 

prej)aration  of  rennet       .        .  3»i8 

dillercnt  qualities  of  cheese  .  311 

warming  the  milk    .        .        .  311 

quality  of  rennet    .        .        .  311 

quantity  of  rennet    .        .        .  312 

treatment  of  curd  .        .        .  312 

separation  of  whey  .       .       .  313 


V<i'A 


r)airy,  tlie— clicese,  salting  . 

addition  of  cream 

size  of  cheese 

mode  of  curin<T  .... 

aininoniacal  cheese 

innoculatins?    do       .        . 

premium  clieese,  how  made  . 
Decomposition,  sea  fermkntation. 

of  manures     .... 
Dew  generally  formed  in  rich  shaded 

soils 

Dew-point,  when  attained  . 
Diseases,  see  cattle,  shekp,  &c. 
Draining  lander]  clay  lands    . 

manner  oC  and  improvements  in 

great  advantages  of      .        .74 

spring  and  swamp  described    . 
Drill-barrow,  how  made  and  used 
Ducks,  see  poultry. 


Education  of  the  farmer       .        .        217 
should  be  provided  for  by  the 
National  and  State  Legisla- 
tures        9 

Electro-culture  considered  .  231 
Elm  trees  for  shade  .  .  .  241 
Ergot  or  cock's  spur  and  its  effects 

described       ....    120 
Experiments  should  be  made  among 

farmers       ....       232 

F. 

Fallow  system  described  .        .    63,  221 

Farming,  variety  of  knowledge  for         6 

demands  the  aid  of  legislation         7 

board  of  agriculture  essential  .       8 

when  profitable     ...  37 

See   AGRICULTCRE. 

Farms,  example  and  experimental, 

recommended         ...        9 

implements,  see  tools. 

buildings,  see  BLiLrnxos. 
Feeding  denned       ....       5 

See  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  &C. 

Feldspar  analysed    ....      46 

useful  as  manure  ...  46 
Fences,  how  avoided       .        ,        .    234 

various  kinds,  manner  of  con- 
structing    .        .        .        235—238 
Fermentation  of  manure         .       .      55 

cider,  vinegar,  &c.        .       .        167 

various  changes  in  food  from  416 
Fescue    grass,    the   tall,   meadow, 

sheep,  &c.     .        .        .86,  92,  93 
Fibrous  covering,  its  value  for  grass  228 

suggested  reasons  for  its  utility  230 
Fiorin  grass  .  .  .  .  .87 
Fish  for  manure  .        .        .        .         62 

how  managed  ....  63 
Flax,  soil       .....        179 

cultivation,  harvesting  and  man- 
agement of    .       .       .       .180 

value  of  and  varieties  .  .  181 
Flesh  as  manure  .  .  .  .62 
Food,  comparative  nutritive  quali- 

^  ties  of     .        .       .        .       .    15S 

now  given,  purposes  fulfilled  by 
It     .        .       ...        .    269-272 

changes  in     .-      .       .       .       272 

Sjee  ANIMALS,  rRODfCTJ,  &C. 


Friablcness  of  soils  im|Mjrtant 

Frogs,  their  utiliiv 

Fruits 


I'ugr 


i6(v-i7a 


Gama  grass 88 

Glass,  broken,  analysed        .        .  45 

as  a  manure       ....  45 
Geese,  see  I'ouUry. 

Goose-berries,  cultivation,  &:c.       .  174 
Grain  and  its  cultivation      .       107 — 135 

Grama  grass 89 

Granite,  sienite,  &.c.  as  manures  40 

Grapes,  soil  and  cultivation    .        .  173 

varieties  of     .        .        .        .  173 

Grass,  ash  analysed         ...  32 

defined 84 

various  kinds     .        .        .      84 — 93 
number  in  England        .        .  84 
number  in  America  ...  85 
value  of  natural  in  U.  S.        .    85, 01 
order  of  nutrition  and  value    .  9l 
comparative  value         .        .  92 
seeds,  sowing    ....  94 
time  for  cutting  and  curing  .  97 
Gravelly  soils,  how  treated     .        .  IB 
Grazing,  defined           ...  5 
Green  crops  for  manures         .        .  61 
advantages  of        .        ,        .  67 
Green- grass,'  smooth-stalked  mead- 
ow, s|X;ar  or  Jiine     .        .  87 
Guano,  its  localities,-  &c.        .        .  47 
analysed,  how  used       .        .  47 
Guinea-hen,  see  PouUiy. 
Gurneyisin,  see  Fibrous  covering. 
Gypsum,  defined  .        .        ,       '.  m 
as  a  manure       •        ...  40 
Bee  Various  Crops. 

IT. 
Hair,  hoofs,  &c.  as  manure    .        .      62 
Harrowing,  how  done         .        .         81 
Hedges,  from  shrubs        .        .        .237 
Hemp,  soil  for       ...        .        181 
cultivation  and  cutting    .        .    182 
drying  and  ricking         .        .        183 
dew-rotting       .        .        .        .184 
shocking  and  breaking  .        .        185 
water-rotting    ....    1«6 
raising  the  seed     .        .         1?6— I'^H 
Hens,  see  Poultry. 
Herds  grass,  red-top  or  foul  mea- 
dow       ....         S3,  93 
Hinny,  see  Ass. 

IJoly-grass,  or  sweet-scented  soft  91,  92 

Hops,  soil  and  cultivation        .        .    217 

harvesting  and  curing  .        218—220 

diseases  in      ...       .       220 

Horse,  the         ....  363—398 

the  Arabian  and  Barb    .        .        3<53 

the  English        ,        .        .        .365 

American       ....       366 

Arabians  in  America        ..        .    364 

,     Ranger,  the  barb    ...        36-1 

Uussorah    .        .        .        -        .365 

Narraganset  pacers        .        .       3(>5 

Messenger,  imported         .        .    366 

Morgan  horses       .        .        .       367 

Canadian  ami  Spanish      .        .    308 


434 


INDEX. 


Page 

IIors<«,  Conestoga  and  Norman      .  368 
Cart,  Cleveland  bay,  Belfounder  369 

Eclipse,  American    .        .        .  374 

points  of        ...        .  370 

habits         ....;'  370 

breeding         ....  371 

manageizient  of  colts         .       .  372 

breaking        ....  373 

longevity,  feeding     .        .        .  374 
Diseases     ....       373— 3JK) 

glanders 375 

lanipas,  lieaves,  &c.  .  .  376 
catarrh  or  distemper,  spasmo- 
dic colic  ....  377 
flatulent  colic  .  .  .  379 
inflammation  of  bowels  .  .  360 
physicking      ....  383 

worms 384 

hots,  wind-galls  .  .  ,  385 
the  fetlock  .  .  .  .386 
cutting,  sprain  of  the  coffin-joiirt, 

ring-bone        .        .        .        .387 

enlargement  of  the  hock        .  388 

curb 389 

bone-spavin,  ssvclled-legs     .  390 

grease 391 

setons 393 

founder,  poison  from  weeds    .  394 

inflammation  of  the  eyes       .  393 

stjngsof  hornets,  &c.        .        .  393 

sprain,  bruises,  fistula           .  395 

wounds,  galls    .        .        .        .  395 

shoeing,  contraelion  of  the  foot  395 

corns 396 

over-reach,  forging  or  clicking  397 

the  bearing-rein,  the  bit  .        .  397 

stables    .....  398 

comparative  labor  with  oxen  .  407 

tlorse-power        ....  253 

Horticulture  defined        ...  6 

Humus  defined     ....  31 

Hydrogen  described         .        .        .51 

its  uses  for  vegetatiou   .       .  52 

I. 

Implements,  see  Tools. 

Indian  Corn,  see  Corn. 

Indigo,  cultivation  of      .        .        .  205 

Introduction          ....  5 

Irrigated  lands,  value  of .        .        .  71 

Irrigation,  where  necessary         .  69 

water,  best  for  ....  70 

lime  for  applying  ...  71 

manner  and  utility  of       .        .  72 

quality  of  grass  from      .        .  72 

^  soils  suited  to    ....  72 

K. 

Kelp,  described        ....  34 

L. 

Leguminous  plants       .        .       138—140 

Lightning  rods,  utility      .        .        .  255 

materials  for,  construction.  255 

conductors  and  non-conductors  256 

Lime,  in  fertile  soils    ...  28 
as  manure                         .        35—38 

described        ...  35 

how  applied      ....  37 


I'aEgfc- 

Lime,  magnesian  desciribcd 

8t 

quantity  applied 

.      38 

applied  to  meadows 

3» 

use  on  the  muck-heap 

.      5(V 

See  Soils,  &c. 

Loamy  soils  defined 

.      13 

how  treated    . 

.          19 

Locust  trees  for  shade      . 

.    240 

Lucern,  ashes  anaJvscd 

,'>2 

value  of     .        .        . 

93.  10$ 

cultivation     . 

103 

Lupin,  as  a  fertiliser 

.      67 

Lye,  as  manure    . 

4» 

M. 

Madder,  its  uses,  soil,  &c.    . 

harvesting  and  preparation       .  208 

value  cf 210 

Magnesian  lime  defined  ...  38 

Manures  defined   ....  30 

organic,  described      .        .       30 — 4» 

ingredients     . ,      .        .        .  31 

ashes 31 

table  of  ashes         ...  32 

value  and  application  of  asiies  33 

for  meadow  lands      .       *       .  34^ 

coal  -aslies  and  sea-weed  ash  34 

peat,  lime       ....  35 

great  value  of  Hme    ...  36 

application  of  lime       .       .  37 

marls 38 

shell-sand       ....  39 

green  sand,  gypsum  ...  40 

bones 41 

phosphate  of  lime,  salt     .       .  42 

sulphates,  the         .        .        .  43 

saltpetre  and  nitrate  of  soda    .  43 
carbonates,  nitrates,  sulphates, 

&c 44 

old  plaster,  broken  brick       .  44 

charcoal,  broken  glass      .        .  45 

mica,  feldspar,  kiva,  &c.       .  48 

spent-ley 46 

ammoniacal  liquor        .        .  47 

guano 47 

analysed,  how  applied  .        .  43 

soot 48 

organic  manures,  constituents 

of 50 

Tarious  kinds,  management  of  53,  68 

barn-yard  manures  ...  53 
important  to   preserve  from 

waste 54 

long  and  short       ...  55 
decomposition  of      .        .        .55 

liquid,  how  saved  .        .  56 

applied  to  the  muck-heap         .  67 

value  of 53 

analysis  of  urine        .        .        .59 
solid  evacuations  .        .        .  .59 
.     poudrette,  urate,  night-soil       .  00 
urine,  urea,  treatment  of  night- 
soil          61 

excrements  of  various  animals  62 

sea-weed,  peat       ...  63 

manuring,  with  green  crops     .  64 
clover,  cow-pea,  sparry,  ate.  65 — 66 

advantages  of  green  manures  .  67 

fallow-system,  the  ti* 


INDEX. 


435 


rage 

Maple  sugar,  sec  Sugar. 

Maple  trees  for  shade      .        .        .210 

Marls  Aw  manure,  defined    .       .         33 

how  analyseil     .        .        •        .39 

green  sand  described     .        .         4(> 

Marly  soils  defined  .        ...      13 

how  treated   ....  19 

3Ieadows,  preparation  of        .        .94 

means  of  renovating     .        .         95 

management  of         ...      90 

Meadow  grasses  ....    tf5— 93 

Mechanical  defined  ...      16 

Mica,  composition  of  .        .        .         46 

useful  as  manure       ...      46 

Milk,  see  Dairy. 

Millet,  character  and  production  of    134 

"  134 

400 
401 
401 
402 
403 
404 
405 
406 
215 
216 


cultivation  of 
Mule,  the 

breeding  in  tlie  U.  S. 

rearing  and  management 

advantages  over  horse  labor 

valuable  qualities  . 

cnduringnessof 

in  California 

economy  of  mule  labor 
Mustard,  varieties  and  product  of 

value  for  feeding 

N. 
Nectarine,  cultivation 
Night-soil,  analysed 

how  treated  and  applied 
Nitrate  of  Potash— see  Saltpetre. 
Nitrate  of  soda  analysed 

for  manure      .... 
Nitric  acid,  composition 

how  formed    .... 
Nitrogen,  described 

necessary  for  vegetables 


173 
60 
61 

43 
43 
53 
55 
52 
52 


Oak  trees,  for  shade 
Oats,  ashes  analysed 

cultivation 

varieties^of 

harvesting 

uses  and  analysis 
Oat  grass 


240 
.      32 

122 
.       122 

1-24 
.  12.1 
»7— 93 


Orchard  and  eock's-foot  grass        66—93 
Oxen— see  Cattle. 

Oxygen,  its  uses       .        .        .        .51 

Oleine,  how  obtained           .        .  41S 

P. 

Parsnep,  soil  and  cultivation         .  153 

harvesting  and  uses      .        .  153 

ash  of,  analysed        .        .        .  32 

Pastures,  importance  and  manage- 
ment of          ....  105 
See  Grasses. 

Peas,  soils,  varieties,  cultivation  .  186 

harvesting              .        .        ,  137 

ash  of,  aiialysed        ...  32 

cow- pea  as  a  fertiliser          .  66 

cultivation  and  value  of  .        .  137 
the  ground  pea— see  Pindars. 

Peaches,  where  grown           .        .  172 

soil,  value  and  diseases        .  172 
varieties            .        .        .        .173 


Pajje 
Peacock— see  Poultry. 
Pears,  cultivation  of                .        .  168 
diseases  in  trees            .        .  168 
gathering  and  preserving,  vari- 
eties            ....  169 
Peat  used  for  manure     .        .        57,  63 
Peaty  soils  defined       ...  14 
described           ....  19 
cultivation  of        .        .        .  20 
Perspiration — see  Animals. 
Pliosphate  of  lime  for  manure    .  42 
Phosphorite,  a  species  of  above    .  42 
Pindars,  cultivation  of        .        .  140 
Planting  defined              ...  6 

See  various  Southern  crops. 
Plaster  of  Paris — see  Gypsujn. 

Piaster,  old,  useful  for  manure   .  44 

Plowing  clay  lands          ...  77 

sandy  soils,  depth  of     .        .  79 

cross- plowing            ...  80 

subsoil            ....  81 
See  Various  Crops. 

Plows,  various  kinds  of      .        .  60 
shovel,   described    when    and 

how  used             ...  83 

subsoils,  useful  to  drained  lands  75 

Plums,  cultivation  of          .        .  171 

diseases  and  varieties      .        .  171 

Potato  ash,  analysed           .        .  32 

its  origin,  varieties  of     .        .  141 

selection  of  seed           .        .  142 

planting  and  cultivation           .  143 

harvesting,  storing,  diseases  144 

preventives  of  rot             .        .  145 

arresting  rot,  uses         .        .  146 

Potato,  the  sweet,  soil,  cultivation  147 

varieties                     ...  148 

Poudrette  described     ...  60 

Poultry  ....    421— '126 

their  value             ...  421 

Hens,  constituent  of  eggs           .  421 

food 422 

general  management        .        .  423 
the  poultry-house          .        .  ,  423 
general  arrangements  and  rear- 
ing        424 

varieties,  the  Dorking,  Poland  424 
Dominiquc,lUick'scounty,Ban- 
tam.  Game  cocks  Creeper, 
Rumpless,  Frizzled,  Merino 
or  silky,  Negro,  Java,  Cochin 
China,  Top-knots      .        .  425 
diseases             ....  425 
gapes  or  pip,  roup  or  catarrh  425 
dux,  costiveness,  veruiin         .  426 
Turkey,  The             .        .        .  426 
breeding,  rearing  and  manage- 
ment           ....  427 
Peacock,  The              .        .        •  427 
Goose,  The        ....  428 
varieties,  breeding            .        .  428 
feeding  and  food           .        .  429 

Ducks             429 

feeding,  varieties           .        .  429 

breeding  and  rearing        .        .  430 

Power,  horse        ....  253 

Prairie  grasses  described        .        .  90 

nianagemenl  of  sheep,  on    .  352 


m 


INPEX. 


Page 
ti. 

Uuinces,  cultivation  of          .  .    170 

R. 

Raspberries,  cultivation  and  var.      175 

Red-top  grass           ...  89,  93 

Rennet— see  Dairy. 

Respiration— see  Animals. 

Ribbon-grass  ....      83 

Rice,  its  iuiportance           .  .        130 

varieties  and  cultivation  .    131 

value  of  the  crop           .  132, 134 

necessity  of  water  for      .  .    133 

Rollers,  how  and  when  used  .         82 

manner  ol  constructing  .  .  82 
See  various  Soils  and  Crops. 

Rotation  on  grass  lands          .  .      97 

of  crops,  when  introduced  .       221 

its  importance          .        .  222—227 

in  natural  meadows      .  .        223 

in  forest  trees           .        .  .    223 

system  of       ...  .        226 

Rye,  ash  of  analysed      ...     32 

cultivation  of       .        .  .        118 

peculiar  aroma  in    .  .    118 

soil  and  cultivation       .  .        118 

preparation  of  soil            .  .    119 

sowing  and  cultivation  .        119 

diseases  in,  for  soiling     ,  .    120 

Rye-grasses,  varieties  of    .  .         87 

value  and  description  of  .      93 

S. 

Sainfoin,  ash  analysed  .         32 

description  and  value  of  .  .      93 

cultivation  of         .        .  .        101 

Salts,  constituents  of              .  .      42 

as  manure  ...         42 

Saltjietre  analysed           .        .  .43 

for  manure  and  steeps  .         43 

.'^and  useful  today  soils          .  .      15 

Samly  loams  defined           .  .         13 

.soils— see  Soils. 

their    treatment  improved  by 
the  roller              ...      17 

Screw- grass  described         .  .         81> 

Pea-weed  lor  manure             .  .      03 
{^hade-tree*— see  Trees, 
ft'heop.  The 

uses  of 

importa»»cc  of 

varieties  of  wild 

domesticated 
"  native 
The  Merino 
%  history  of 

px(>ortati6u  fruui  Spain 


317—301 
317 
.    318 
310 
.    320 
321 
323-3:J0 
323 
.    324 
im'iMjrtalron  into  tl»e  U.  States    325 
varieli'-s  ....    320 

'J'he  Saxon  ...        328 

the  RambomlJet  .        .    329 

liJKtury  Ol  Aleriiiu  in  U.  Slates    3.*>1 
iniprovcinents  of  .         .     .'i'}2 

peculiarities  of      .        .        .        3.'J3 
hree.liug  .  .        .331 

loca lilies  for  rearing      .        .        3-WJ 
The  Soiiih-Down  .  .    3.'J6 

history  of        .  .        .        337 

•iUeChevoit         ...  33c 


Page 

The  Long  Wools      ...  338 

improvement  of  the  Bakcvvell  338 
improvement  of  Cotswold  and 

Lincolnshire          .        .        •  340 

peculiaritiesof  the  Long  Wools  340 

importation  into  the  U.  States  310 

breeding  sheep       .        .        .  310 

Winter  management            .        .  313 

sheep  barns  and  sheds          .  343 

racks,  mangers,  and  troughs    .  344 

food 344 

management  of  ewes,  yeaning  345 

management  of  lambs            .  340 

castrating  and  docking    .        .  3^17 

tagging  or  clotting         .        .  347 

Summer  management  and  food  .  318 

washing         ....  349 

shearing             ....  350 

smearing  and  salving            .  3.50 

weaning             ....  331 

drafting^  stall  feeding    .        .  3.j2 

management  on  the  prairies    .  352 
353-301 

.  351 


diarrhcea  or  scours 
looseness  in  lambs,  dyeentcry 
hoven,    braxy,   costiveness, 

stretches     .... 
poison,  inflammation  of  lungs, 

rot, foot-rot    .... 
Ries,  maggots,  gad-fiy   .  '    . 
swollen    mouth,    foul    noses, 

weakness,  scab 
ticks,  pelt-rot,  staggers  or  sturdy  359 
abortion,  garzet,  bleeding     .        300 
wounds,  to  protect  from  wolves 


355 
355 


356 
357 


358 


and  foxes 
Shepherd  dogs 
Sheds,  see  Buildings. 
Shell-sand  for  manure     . 
Shovil  plows,  how  used 
Silicate  of  potash  and  soda 
Snakes  destroy  insects 
Soda  ash  described  . 
Sodium  described 
Soils  described 

orifjin  and  texture 

divisions  of 

description  of  varieties 

how  examined  . 

ngredients  necessary  to  them 


361 
361 


83 

.      45 

234 

.      34 

42 

11-^ 

n 

U-15 

11—15 

.       13 

14 


clays,  characteristics  and  man- 
agement     ....         15 

gravelly,  their  management     .      18 

loamy,  marly,  calcareous,  allu- 
vial, peaty      ....      19 

effect  of  cultivation  upon 

additional  properties  of 


attraction  and  capacity  for  wa- 


various  fertile,  analyzed 

much  lime  in  fertile 

changes  in 
Soot  a.s  manure    . 
.Spading,  advantages  of   . 
Spurry  as  a  fertiliser    . 

cultivation  of    . 
Steaming  apparatus,  advantages  of   253 


how  constructed 


22 

23-28 


^^4-26 
27 

2S 
30 

48 


JO 
104 


251 


INDEX. 


437 


Pago 
Stearine  and  dieinc,  how  olrtalROd 

and  used         .        .        .       •.    418 
Strawberry,  cultivation,  varieties       175 
Subsoil  plow,  useful  for  drained  lands  75 
Subsoils  and  their  management  .  21 
advantages  of  plowing      .        21,  80 
Sulphrite  of  lime — see  Gypsura 
Sulphate  of  soda  ff»r  niaRurc  .        .      43 
Sulphate  of  majinesia,  potash      .          43 
Sugar  cane,  its  product  in  the  U.  S.    190 
cultivation      ....        l!)0 
harvesting          ....     197 
analysis  and  fattening  proper- 
ties of T98 

varieties  of  cane  .  .  .  lf)8 
cane  covcrer  .  .  .  .199 
Maple,  its  quality  and  production  199 
region  where  made  .  .  .  200 
process  of  making  .  200—202 
Sumach,  varieties  described  .  .  214 
cultivation,  harvesting,  uses        214 

Swine 410—420 

where  profitable  .  .  .  410 
various  breeds  .  .  .  411—413 
breeding  and  real  ing  .  .  413 
rearing   and    fattening,  large 

weights       .        .        .        .        414 
economy  of  early  fattening      .    415 
treatment  of  food  .        .        .        416 
products  of  the  carcjiss    .        .    417 
lard  oil,  how  made         .        .        417 
stearine  and  oleine   .        .        .    418 
curing  pork  and  hams  .        .       418 
Diseases         ....  419—420 
coughs  and  inflaiiamation  of  the 
lungs,  costiveness,  itch,  kid- 
ney-worm  ....        419 
blind  staggers    ....    420 

T. 

Table  of  analysis  of  various  soils  27 
of  ash  of  plants  ...  82 
of  grasses,  their  characteristics 

and  value      .        .        .         92-93 
explanation  of  nutritive  equi- 
valents       ....        157 
nutritive  qualities  of  food  and 

forage  .        .        .        15e— 159 

exhaustion  of  saline  manures 

by  crops      ....        222 
loss  by  respiration,  evacuations 

perspiration  in  animals      .        261 

principles  contained  in  various 

animal  food         .        .        ,        271 

Tanks  for  holding  liquid  manure  56 

how  constructed  and  managed      56 

Tares,  cultivation  and  value  of      .    139 

Teasels,  uses,  cultivation  of       .       215 

Tillage  husbandry  defined       .        .        5 

Timber,  best  time  for  cutting      ,        241 

preparation  and  preserving      .    aio 

Timothy-grass  described     .        .  86 

cultivation  and  value        .        86,  93 

Toads,  their  utility       .        .        .        233 

Tobacco,  where  cultivated     .        .    202 

soil  and  cultivation        .        .        202 

priming,  topping,  harvesting   .    203 

quality,  analysis,  value  of    .        204 

Tools,  farming,  hoyv  made,  &c.     $f>,  245 


Page 

Tornillo  or  screw-grass  described       89 

'i'rap-rocks,  valuable  soils      .        ,      46 

useful  as  manure  .        .  46 

Trees  for  shade,  their  value  238,  241,  243 


their  proper  position 

. 

238 

various  kinds  used 

239—241 

forest,  how  managed 

241- 

-244 

cutting,  best  time  for     . 

. 

244 

Tull's  theory 

23 

Turneps,  ashes  of,  analysed 

32 

soil  and  cultivation 

113 

ruta-bagas,  cultivation  of 

J  49 

enemies  and  treatment     . 

, 

149 

harvesting  and  storing 

. 

150 

feeding  value,  varieties  of 

151 

Turkies— see  Poultry. 

Tussac-grass  described 

90 

u. 

Under-draining— see  Draing. 

Urate  described,  its  uses         .        .  00 

Urea  analysed  ...  61 

Urine  of  various  animals  analysed  59 

human,  analysed  .        .  61 

See  Manures'. 


Vegetable  molds  described     .        .      14 
Vernal  grass,  sweet  scented       .    88,  92 
Vetches— see  Tares. 
Vinegar,  to  make         ...        168 

W. 

Walnut  tree,  the  black  for  shade       240 

Water,  suited  to  irrigation  .  .  70 
its  uses  for  .  .  .  .  71 
rain,  contains  nutricious  gases  74 
for  cattle  yards      .        .        .        251 

Weeds,  destroying  in  grain  .  .  121 
defined,  how  avoided    .        .        227 

Weld,  description  and  cultivation  of  212 

Wheat,  aah  of,  analysed       .        .  82 

cultivation  of,  winter  and  spring 

how  produced  .        .        l(.7 

analysis  of,  value  of  American  lOS 
preparation  of  ground  and  ma- 
nures for  ....  lOS 
selection  and  preparation  of  seed  110 
sowing  and  afterculture  .  .  Ill 
enemies  of  wheat  .  .  .  IH 
smut  described  and  prevented  112 
rust,  how  treated  .  .  .112 
time  of  harvesting,  threshing 

stacking  ,        •        .        .113 

value  of  straw  and  chaff       .        114 
varieties  of  seed        .        .        .114 
production  of  new  varieties         lift 
management  of  spring  and  va- 
rieties ....        117 

Willow,  the  weeping,  for  shade     .    240 

Woad,  uses,  soil  and  cultivation  210 
gathering  and  preparation  .  211 
description  and  cultivation  .        212 

n  ood-lands,  how  managed  2^11—244 
profits  of  ...  .  242 
lands  that  should  remain  wood    243 

Woolen  rags  and  waste  as  manure      62 
Z. 

Zebra,  the 2i>» 


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